? 
























.-».• 







.. *>o 



'bv' 









^*- .." ,% 









•i.. . 



^* ^ \ '-^ly/ '^^ *^ • 











*•-.. •: 



<?. 



?[i • -^^ A* 






<^w^" * 









V^ 



NEW HISTOET 



OF THE 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 



BY 



JOHN LORD, A.M., 

AUTHOR OP A MODERN HISTORY, FROM THE TIMES OF LUTHER TO THE 
PALL OP NAPOLEON. 




PHILADELPHIA: 
THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO. 
1854. 



Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1853, by 

JOHN LORD, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for 
the Eastern Disti'ict of Pennsylvania. 

STERKOTYPEP Et J. FAGAN. 



En? 



INTRODUCTION. 



The necessity for some new History of the United States, 
for the use of schools, has been long felt, and frequently 
expressed by experienced teachers; and it is with the hope 
of supplying some of those deficiencies, of which so many 
complain, that the author has been stimulated to prepare the 
following work. If any impressive generalization of well-esta- 
blished facts can be presented — if an unbroken narrative can 
be preserved, interesting in its details and instructive in its 
moral lessons — and, especially, if the youthful mind can be 
inspired with patriotic sentiments and increased veneration for 
the principles, labours, and struggles of our ancestors : no 
more useful contribution to the cause of popular education 
can possibly be made. Such have been the objects aimed at 
by the author, and it now remains with the public to decide 
whether these have been attained. 

The narrow limits of this history necessarily have prevented 
as full a description of many interesting events as might be 
desired; but no fact which has an obvious relation to tlie 
progress of the nation has been omitted, and all great characters 
and actors have been treated in proportion to their importance. 

(V) 



VI INTRODUCTION. 

In the preparation of the work, original authorities and 
standard historians have alone been consulted, and especial 
attention paid to dates and names. The arrangement of chap- 
ters and subjects is somewhat peculiar, and the whole book 
made as philosophical as the popular taste will permit. The 
questions have been placed at the end of the volume, in order 
that teachers may dispense with them altogether, if they please, 
and as they doubtless will, if they have the ability and incli- 
nation to consult the greatest improvement of their pupils. 

In conclusion, the author would modestly express the hope 
that this little book may receive the attention which a life 
devoted to historical composition should not unreasonably 
claim. 

J. L. 
Boston, June, 1853. 



CONTENTS. 



BOOK I. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE DISCOVERY OP AMERICA PAGE 13 

CHAPTER II. 

THE INDIANS 23 

CHAPTER III. 

UNSUCCESSFUL SETTLEMENTS 29 

BOOK 11. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA 35 

CHAPTER II. 

SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND 61 

CHAPTER III. 

SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 85 

CHAPTER IV. 

SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND 95 

CHAPTER V. 

SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA 99 

(vii) 



VIU CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VI. 

SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 



109 



CHAPTER VII. 

FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS m 119 



BOOK III. 

CHAPTER I. 

EARLY COLONIAL HISTORY. — INDIAN WARS 123 

CHAPTER II. 

RELIGIOUS DISSENSIONS, DELUSIONS, AND PERSECUTIONS 133 

CHAPTER III. 

ENGLISH COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS 143 

CHAPTER IV. 

POPULAR DISCONTENTS, AND EARLY CONTESTS WITH GOVERNORS 148 

CHAPTER V. 

EARLY INTERCOLONIAL WARS 155 

CHAPTER VI. 

STATE OF THE COLONIES AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE EIGHTEENTH 

CENTURY 162 

BOOK IV. 

CHAPTER I. 

DOMESTIC HISTORY UNTIL THE OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 169 

CHAPTER II. 

BBTTLEMKNT OF GEORGIA 1'5 



CONTENTS. 13r 

CHAPTER III. 

THE THIRD INTERCOLONIAL WAR 183 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE FOURTH INTERCOLONIAL, OR OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 189 



BOOK V. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 209 

CHAPTER II. 

FIRST CAMPAIGN OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 233 

CHAPTER III. 

THE CAMPAIGN OF 1777, UNTIL THE SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE 249 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE PROGRESS OP THE WAR, FROM THE SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE TO 

THE TREASON OP ARNOLD 259 

CHAPTER V. 

THE TWO LAST CAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 273 



BOOK VI. 

CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND THE EARLY PRESIDENTS. 
CHAPTER I. 

CONDITION AND HISTORY OP THE STATES UNTIL THE ADOPTION OF THE 

FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 286 

CHAPTER II. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OP WASHINGTON 309 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

ADMINISTRATION OP ADAMS 332 

CHAPTER IV. 

ADMINISTRATION OP JEFFERSON 341 

CHAPTER V. 

FIRST TERM OP MADISON's ADMINISTRATION 353 

CHAPTER VI. 

SECOND TERM OP MADISOn's ADMINISTRATION 363 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE CAMPAIGN OP 1814 377 

BOOK YIL 

THE LATTER PRESIDENTS. 
CHAPTER I. 

ADMINISTRATION OP MONROE 389 

CHAPTER II. 

ADMINISTRATIONS OP JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND ANDREW JACKSON 396 

CHAPTER III. 

ADMINISTRATION OP MARTIN VAN BUREN 403 

CHAPTER IV. 

ADMINISTRATION OP GENERAL HARRISON 410 

CHAPTER V. 

ADMINISTRATION OP PRESIDENT POLK 417 

CHAPTER VI. 

ADUmiSTBATION OF GENERAL TAYLOR 441 



^y^'~^=^ 




Landing of Columbus. 



12 



HISTORY 

OF 

THE UNITED STATES. 



BOOK I. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

The latter part of tlie fifteenth century was the dawn book i. 
of a new and brilliant age in the history of civilization. "chTT" 
It was a period marked by the dispersion of the shadows 
and delusions of the Middle Ages, when new hopes ani- 1450 
mated all classes of people, and led to the exercise of to 
unknown energies. It was the commencement of those l*^^^- 
experiments and reforms which have since agitated Chris- The epi- 
tendom, and changed the whole structure of society. ?-x^^^ 
The restless and the enterprising were no longer willing and 
to rest in the bondage and ignorance of feudal times. ^ ^^^^' 
They aspired to break both their civil and ecclesiastical 
fetters They were disgusted with prevailing absurdi- 
ties, and were clamorous for greater privileges. The 
strife of parties and orders, of classes and interests, then 
began, which has not yet passed away, and which will 
continue until the people, everywhere, shall secure those 
great rights which constitute what is most to be valued 
in civilization. 

2 (13) c 



14 SPIRIT OF COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE. 

Book I. And improvements in architecture, in husbandry, in 
ch. 1. mechanical arts, in dress,, in cookery, and in all articles 
of domestic comfcrt, kept pace with the progress of 
1460 liberty and the extension of intellectual light. Nature 
to revealed unknown sources of wealth, and art presented 
1500. new forms of beauty. Sculptors arose, and rivalled the 
Revival faultless modcls of the classic world. Painters trans- 
and^ ^ mitted to posterity the most beautiful conceptions of 
learning lovclincss and gracc. Enthusiastic scholars collected 
and collated valuable manuscripts. The muses again 
returned from their long and melancholy exile, and re- 
kindled the love of poetry and song. Philosophers re- 
vived the questions which had agitated the Grecian 
schools, and speculated on the profoundest truths which 
had ever moved the human mind. Reformers exposed 
the follies and errors of the dark ages, and denounced 
the corruptions which had crept into the Church. A 
new life pervaded society, and produced a desire among 
the people to improve their condition, and extend the 
boundaries of knowledge. A great era commenced in 
the history of civilization, and a better day dawned upon 
the nations. 
Revival ^^* nothing has made this epoch more memorable 
of com- than the spirit of commercial enterprise which first ap- 
peared among the Italian cities. The crusaders had 
developed the maritime importance of such cities as 
Florence, Venice, Pisa and Genoa, and stimulated the 
love of adventure and wealth. Travellers penetrated the 
East, and returned, as did Marco Polo, with glowing 
accounts of the wonders and magnificence of Asiatic 
cities. But whatever land adventurous curiosity may 
explore, will also be visited by those who are animated 
by the hopes of gain. The valued productions of Per- 
sia, Arabia and India, such as spices, silks, muslins 



merce. 



CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 15 

shawls, carpets, ivory, and precious stones, were carried booki. 

over mountains, rivers and deserts, and sold, in the marts Ch. i. 

of eastern commerce, to the merchants of Italy. They ^ jy 

rapidly acquired fortunes, which increased the desire for 1460 

luxury, as well as encouraged literature, refinement, ^^ 

1 , 1500. 

and art. 

But the delay, inconvenience and expense attending a direct 
the overland transportation of goods from Asia, made f^j^^j^ 
the supply more limited than the demand. It therefore by sea 
bccaaie the great desire of the merchants to import their Ttjienfof" 
commodities direct from India by sea. But no direct ^^^ ag«- 
passage was known to navigators; to discover one, be- 
came the great problem of the age. 

None studied this subject with more earnestness than 1480. 
Christopher Columbus, of Genoa; a great genius by 
nature, and also acquainted, theoretically and practically, 
with all the science and art then known which pertained 
to navigation. 

From the rotundity of the earth's surface, and from coium- 
well-attested reports of floating timber, curiously carved ^^^^^, 
— of canoes with the dead bodies of unknown races — and rotundi- 
of plants and trees, natives neither of Africa nor Eu- g^rth, ^ 
rope, which had been found at a great distance at sea ^^'^^ 
west of Cape St. Vincent, or thrown upon the westerly passage 
shores of the Azores — he inferred that a great continent *<^i^<iia' 
might be reached by sailing west, and that this continent 
was India. 

He did not expect to discover a new continent, still 
less such as that of America, whose existence was not 
even dreamed of by the nations of antiquity, or by the 
most enlightened men of the fourteenth century. He 
simply hoped, by sailing west, to reach the eastern shores 
of Asia, having no definite idea of the greatness of the 
earth, nor of the difficulties to be surmounted. He did 



16 COLUMBUS SOLICITS PATRONAGE. 

Book I. Qot even know of the passage to India round the Cape of 
Oh. 1. Good Hope. The only way known by which merchants 
^^ j^ could easily reach this El Dorado was, either by crossing 
1486. tlie Isthmus of Suez, and then undertaking the dangerous 
navigation of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean; or by 
traversing the Syrian deserts to the Euphrates, and then 
descending the river and sailing through the Persian 
Gulf; subject, in either case, to great hardships, and the 
attacks of hostile nations and tribes. 
Coium Columbus, in order to realize the splendid idea of reach- 
bus ap- ing India by a westerly passage, had need of powerful 
thT ° assistance. But the courts of Europe generally regarded 
courts i^is project as visionary, and declined to aid him. He 
rope for was succcssively disappointed in his overtures to his native 
^^'^' city, to John II. of Portugal, and to Henry VII. of 
England, though those kings were known to be liberal and 
enlightened patrons of commercial enterprise. At last, 
under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 
1492. he embarked upon the Atlantic Ocean with three small 
vessels, provisioned for twelve months, and manned with 
about a hundred followers. Providence favoured his bold 
undertaking, and, without any serious misfortunes or dis- 
couragements, apart from the murmurings of his men, 
this self-sustained and intrepid man of genius, after a 
voyage of thirty-six days from the Canary Islands, and 
seventy from the harbour of Palos in Spain, discovered 
Disco- land. This memorable event happened on the 12th of 
JllV^ October, 1492; and the land discovered proved to be 
Guanahani, one of the Bahama Islands, on which he 
landed with considerable ceremony and deep emotion; and 
of which he took possession in the name of the King and 
Queen of Spain, much to the amazement of the natives, 
who offered no obstructions, and who regarded their 
visiters as children of the Sun. 



COLUMBUS' FIRST VOYAGE. 17 

After discovering other islands, among wliicli were booki. 

Cuba and Hispaniola, Columbus returned in triumph to ch. i. 

Spain, and was received with universal respect and atten- ^_ jy 

lion. His great services were appreciated, and, at first, 1493 
rewarded. He afterwards commanded several expeditions to 

to the new world, but was not sufficiently fortunate to give -'-^^^• 

\, ^ Coltun- 

it his name. That glory was reserved for another. Nor bus^ui> 
would Spanish pride and jealousy permit the great disco- ^^^^^^'ll 
verer to reap the rewards due to his matchless intrepidity. 
His latter days were saddened by the ingratitude of the His lat- 
princes whom he served, and the neglect of the country ^^^ ^^^^' 
he had enriched. The very great benefactors to our race 
must be content with the glorious consciousness of having 
elevated it, a posthumous fame, and the hopes of the fu- 
ture life. Other rewards than these, they arc not likely 
to receive. 

Columbus started with the idea of solving the great 
problem of his age — a direct passage to India by sea. 
His idea was not realized by himself; this passage was 
discovered by the Portuguese. But how much grander conse- 
was the discovery of a new western continent, when all cLuencea 

•^ ' of the 

the future consequences of it are considered, than merely disco- 
finding an easier way to import into Europe the riches of \^^^ ^.^ 

^ «' X 1 America 

the Indies ! When we contemplate the inexhaustible 
sources of mineral wealth, the vast extent of fertile tracts, 
the rivers, prairies and forests of the new country — capa- 
ble of supporting so many millions of people ; and when 
we consider the character of the people who settled it, 
and their institutions and principles, destined to such un- 
limited expansion and application, and giving every rea- 
sonable hope of moral influence on the world's affairs 
beyond the limits of human calculation — then the great- 
ness of the discovery which was made by Columbus can- 
not easily be exaggerated. 
2* 



18 VOYAGE OF CAEOT. 

Book I. The merit, however, of first seeing the main -land, after 
ch. 1. the great navigator had led the way, belongs to John 
A. D. Cabot, a Venetian by birth, but a citizen of Bristol, in 
1496. the west of England. The claim to the discovery of the 
^ main-land was disputed by Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- 

tine, who succeeded in giving his name to the great conti 
nent of which the United States now form the most 
important part. 
Cabot's In 1496, Cabot obtained from Henry VII. a commis- 
^^^^ sion similar to the one granted to Columbus by Ferdinand 

voyage. ° *' 

and Isabella, with this difference — that he was required 
to defray the expenses of the expedition himself. No 
records are preserved of his first voyage, in which he was 
accompanied by his son Sebastian ; but it is believed that 
he reached the continent somewhere on the coast of La- 
brador. On his return to Bristol in 1498, he obtained a 
new, but less ample patent from the king , and another 
expedition was sent out, under the command of Sebastian 
1498. Cabot, a man of singular talent and energy, who, after 
Cabot's reaching the main-land in latitude 58 degrees, sailed south 

Pecond ° ° ' 

voyage, aloug the coast as far as Albemarle Sound, and then, for 
Tf Ame- ^^^^ ^^ provisions, returned to England. Even then 
rican AmeHca was supposed to be some part of the eastern 

continent; and Cabot, like Columbus and other early 

navigators, was in quest of a westerly passage to India. 

The fruit of his labour was the addition of a part of North 

America to the English crown. 
1504. In 1504, the French entered with other nations into 
Dipcov'y competition for the commerce and soil of America. Some 

of Cape 

Breton, fishcrmeu from Brittany discovered the island of Cape 
Breton; and, a few years afterwards, in 1522, John 
Verazzani, a Florentine, under the auspices of Francis I., 
explored the coast from Carolina to Nova Scotia. In 
1534, Jaques Cartier discovered the river St. Lawrence, 



EARLY SPANISH DISCOVERIES. 19 

which he ascended as far as Montreal, which he named book i. 
from the beautiful hill on the island. Ch. i. 

The French and English now claimed between them ^ j^ 
the northern sections of the American continent. The 1512. 
Spaniards and Portuguese, however, were the first to avail 
themselves of the great discovery which Columbus had 
made. They sought the southern sections of the conti- 
nent, especially those which were supposed to be richest 
in precious metals. The first colony was established, soon Early 
after the discovery of America, in Hispaniola, or, as it was ^^.^J^^'** 
afterwards called, St. Domingo ; and this was followed by menta. 
a settlement in Porto Rico and Cuba, which islands were 
conquered and enslaved. 

Then followed the conquest of Mexico by Fernando Con- 
Cortez, whose sovereign, Montezuma, was the most pow- li^^^^ 
erful and wealthy of all the Indian princes that have 
reigned in America before or since the arrival of the 
Europeans. The people whom he governed had attained 
a considerable degree of civilization, having a regular 
government, a system of laws, and an established priest- 
hood. They possessed considerable skill in many useful 
and ornamental arts, were able to record events, and were 
rich in cities, in palaces, and in gardens. But their gold 
and silver excited the cupidity of the Spaniards, and 
proved the greatest of their misfortunes. Mr. Prescott 
has depicted their sufferings and ruin with exquisite art 
and beauty; and the young student is referred to his bril- 
liant narrative, since the subjects to which it relates can 
only be alluded to here. 

About ten years after the conquest of Mexico, Pizarro, 1538. 
another adventurous Spaniard, landed in Peru, and soon Con- 
added that country to the dominions of the King of Spain, peru. 
All Indians between the ages of fifteen and fifty were 
compelled to work in the mines; and so dreadful was the 



of con- 
quests 



20 SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE CONQUESTS. 

Book I. forced labour, that four out of five of those who were so 
Ch. 1. doomed, perished annually. There was no limit to Spa- 
^ jy nish rapacity, which was exercised wherever the Spaniards 
1688. obtained a foothold on the American continent. 

Portugal soon rivalled Spain in the extent and richness 
quest of of its colouial possessions. Brazil was discovered in 1501, 
Brazil, ^j^^ ^r^g settled about fifty years afterwards. The natives, 
inferior to the Mexicans and Peruvians, were still more 
Effects easily subdued, and a powerful State arose over the ruin 
of the native princes. But the Spanish and Portuguese 
monarchies were not enriched to the degree which was 
anticipated from their possession of inexhaustible mines. 
True riches are not in gold and silver ; these are only the 
medium of exchange — the substitute for more valuable 
materials. National wealth consists in industry, skill, 
and art, as displayed in agriculture, commerce, and manu- 
factures. The Spaniards, insensible to this truth, ex- 
changed their gold for the productions of other countries ; 
and thus those most distinguished for art became the real 
gainers. 

Still, all nations, in that period, were infatuated with 
the supposed value of the precious metals, and unreason- 
able expectations were formed of the immediate advan- 
tages to be derived from the possession of the newly dis- 
covered continent. Not merely gold and silver were to be 
procured in boundless quantities, with scarcely any diffi- 
culty; but fountains were to be found, whose waters, 
flowing over beds of gems and gold, would prove the 
elixir of life, and produce perpetual youth. It was in 
quest of this fair land that one of the companions of Co- 
Disco- lumbus, Juan Ponce de Leon, a rapacious adventurer, 
Fior'd^ discovered the peninsula which he called Florida, from the 
brilliant blossoms and fresh verdure of that country in 
the early spring. 



DIFFICULTIES TO BE ENCOUNTERED. 21 

From the impression that Florida was a land of gold book i. 
and jewels, sanguine adventurers went- in quest of them. ch. i. 
In consequence of their explorations, Georgia was visited, 
and the mighty Mississippi was discovered. Fernando de 
Soto, one of the companions of Pizarro in the conquest niscov'y 
of Peru in 1538, was the first to see the queen of rivers, Missis- 
which he ascended, in 1541, to its junction with the Mis- ^^pp^- 
souri. This latter river he explored for two hundred 
miles, and would have advanced farther, had he not died, 
exhausted with fatigue. From his discoveries, and also 
those of de Leon and others, the Spaniards laid claim to 
the country around the Gulf of Mexico, and also a part 
of the Atlantic coast of North America. 

The new world, therefore, fell into the hands of the Spa- 
niards, Portuguese, French, and English, on the ground 
of discovery. But it was not yet colonized by them. 
Many unsuccessful attempts were to be made before this 
could be effected. Difl&culties and dangers were to be 
surmounted. These chiefly arose from the perils of the 
sea, want of provision, the unhealthfulness of the climate, 
and the unsubdued face of the country — from the impene- 
trable forests, extreme heat and cold, wild beasts, and the 
hostility of the Indians. 

Before we trace these settlements, it is well to consider 
briefly that singular race which the Europeans had to 
encounter with such fierce warfare, and which presented 
the greatest obstacle to the peaceful possession of the 
country. 










Aboriginal Americans. 



THE INDIANS. 23 



CHAPTER II. 

THE INDIANS. 

The early navigators, wlien they reached the shores booki. 
of the new world, found that it was inhabited by a people ch. 2. 
with whose language, manners and customs, they were j^ jy 
entirely unacquainted. Their personal appearance was as 1492 
strange as their language and habits. Their peculiarities to 
were different from all other known races of men. Their -^"-U. 
complexion was copper-coloured, their countenances me- Person- 
lancholy and sedate, their hair straight and black, their pg^^j, ,jf 
aspect wild, their bodies athletic and strong, and their the h:i- 
language earnest and musical. Their mode of life showed Their 
that they had made no attainments in civilization. They ^'^^^*^- 
were more completely barbarous than any people then 
known on the globe. Those who inhabited the present lim- 
its of the United States were savages, scantily clothed, living 
in rude huts, and dependent for their daily bread on precari- 
ous means of support. They had no arts, no literature, and 
no records of their origin and history. Large settlements, 
at least in North America, Mexico excepted, were unknown. 
There were no cities, no temples, no palaces, no comfort- 
able houses. They had neither ships, nor domestic ani- 
mals, nor beasts of burden, nor any kind of mechanism to 
lighten labour. They were ignorant of all luxuries, of 
commerce, of agriculture to any extent, of manufactures, 
and of the arts of cookery. They lived on a coarse kind 
of grain called maize, on such game as the forests afforded, 
and on the fish they caught in the rivers. They had no 



24 THE INDIANS. 

Book I. mechanical skill beyond the construction of a wigwam, or 
Ch. 2. a birch bark canoe, or the rude weapons of war and the 
j^ jy chase. They were ignorant of government and laws, and 
1492 submitted only to the mild and imperfect jurisdiction of 
to their chieftains. There was no order of priests among 
^^^' them, as among the ancient Celts and modern Hindoos. 
Habits As individuals, they possessed no property aside from 
tomsTf" *^^^^ arms, canoes, and a few ornaments, of which they 
the In- were fond, unless we except the corn they had planted, 
and the game they had killed. They revenged their 
wrongs without having recourse to any public tribunal. 
They spent their time in alternate torpidity and intense 
excitement. Their pleasure, as well as business, were war 
and the chase. The forests were their home, their joy, 
and their security. Athletic games and feastings on 
important occasions, however, varied the ordinary mono- 
tony of their lives. They indulged in no high hopes; 
they formed no grand plans of life. All sedentary 
employments were regarded as degrading and servile. 
They committed to women the labour of the field and the 
drudgery of the wigwam, while they abandoned themselves 
to idleness and feastings, or engaged in amusements both 
dangerous and uncertain. 
Their Their dispositions and traits of character were as 

chsposi- remarkable as their habits and customs. Individualism, 

tions ^ ^ ^ ^ ' 

and in all its wild independence and in all its unsociality, was 
traits, ^j^^ grand peculiarity of the Red man. He hated every- 
thing like civilization. He loved to roam unrestricted in 
his forests, and avoid settlements and business. Pie had 
no inclination for the comforts of a fixed habitation. He 
was capable of great fatigue and privation, and exhibited 
in the chase peculiar sagacity. He was at home in the 
solitude of the wilderness, and never lost his way. He 
was meditative, reserved, and quiet — rarely made profes- 



THE NORTH AMERICAN TRTBEa. 25 

sions of friendship wliicli were not sincere, and, for a booki. 
barbarian, had great respect for his word. As a friend, ch. 2. 
he was true, disinterested, and stable. As an enemy, he j^ j^ 
was revengeful, implacable, and cruel. He never forgot 1492 
a kindness, nor forgave an injury. He divided his last to 
cake of bread with the stranger who claimed his hospita- ■'-"^^« 
lit}^ ; he tormented with the most merciless barbarity the 
victim who had excited his vengeance. 

He was not deficient in religious sensibilities; but, like Reii- 
the ancient German, whom he strikingly resembled, he fueTand 
disdained to worship God in temples made with hands, or ceremo- 
with statues and images. He was no idol worshipper. 
He was not even a Pantheist, seeing God in the groves, 
the rocks, the rivers, the thunder, the sun, the moon, and 
the stars. Yet he believed in the reality of a Supreme 
Being, who controlled his destinies — an invisible Spirit, 
to whom all were subject and obedient. This Great Spirit 
was the universal Father who protected his children, who 
rewarded the good and punished the evil. The Indian 
feared and adored, though vaguely and indefinitely, this 
invisible power, and sought to propitiate his favour or 
avert his wrath by deeds of penance and severe medi- 
tation. 

He differed from the ancient Germanic barbarian in his y.^^g 
views of woman, whom he degraded and kept in bondage, and 
He did not reverence her nature, or yield to her entrea- ment of 
ties. He heard in her voice no inspiration, nor was he ^oi»en« 
influenced by her gentle counsels. He regarded her aa 
an inferior being, and made her his slave. She carried 
his burdens when he travelled, she planted and gathered 
his corn, she made his mats and blankets, she discharged 
all the laborious duties of his home. Yet she toiled 
without murmuring, and loved without a generous return. 
She was rarely the mother of more than four children ; 
3 



26 THE NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES. 

Book I. but of these she was fond, and to their comfort she was 
Gh. 2. devoted. 

^ J) The great passion of the North American Indian was 
1492 war. He was engaged in constant hostilities. He looked 
to upon warfare as the most honourable and glorious of all 
IdLU. purguitSj and success in it secured both dignity and influ- 
Games, cncc. The brave and successful warrior was the pride of 
festivals ^j^g tribe, and the object of unbounded panegyric. Next 
to war, the Indian loved the chase; and his hunting- 
grounds were more prized than all the united blessings 
of civilization. He obstinately refused to be civilized. 
Hatred He ncver exhibited any taste or desire for the privileges 
zltion'*' and blessings of society. When tamed and partially edu- 
cated by white men, he would generally return to his wild 
pleasures in the wilderness. He never sympathized with 
the European in any of his pursuits. He neither envied 
nor imitated him. He had a natural antipathy to him, 
from whatever country he came, and whatever religion he 
professed. All his tastes, his habits, his prejudices and 
his passions, predisposed him to inveterate hostility to the 
European race and European civilization. And since 
barbarism cannot contend successfully with civilization, 
the Indians, when brought in contact with civilized ene- 
mies, faded away. Their fate was as inscrutable, as it 
was melancholy. But it has all the mystery of a Provi- 
dential event. 

When, however, the Europeans first visited the shores 
of North America, the natives were formidable, and much 
to be dreaded. They were more numerous than at any 
subsequent period, and were subdivided into numerous 
tribes, speaking different dialects. 

The most powerful of these were the Algonquins, the 
Iroquois, and the Mobilians. The first named, which 
included the Delaware, Narragansett, Pequod, and perhaps 



KORTH AMERICAN TRIBES. 27 

Huron tribes, inhabited the Atlantic coast, from Canada book t. 

to the Chesapeake Bay. With these, the most desperate Ch. 2. 

contests were carried on. From these, the early settlers a. d. 

received the greatest injury. They were objects of un- 1492 

ceasing fear and detestation. The second great division *^ 

1 Aon 
inhabited the shores of the St. Lawrence, and afterwards 

central New York, under the various names of Mohawks, J^^'^"* 

' ' Indian 

Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. They were tribes. 
called the Five Nations, and were chiefly formidable 
during the colonial wars with the French and Canadians. 
They lived too remote from the early settlements, to give 
serious alarm. The third great race, the Mobilians, 
included the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, 
Appalachees, and Yamassees. Their hunting-grounds 
were still more remote from European settlements, al- 
though they were scattered along the Atlantic coast from 
Canada to Greorgia. Had all these various tribes united 
to expel their invaders — had they been capable of con- 
cert, the historian might have had to record a different 
history of the colonization of America. But they were 
at perpetual war with each other, and did not know 
the designs of the Europeans, and were not fully prepared 
for an organized resistance. As their invaders obtained 
a foothold, they retreated into more remote forests. They 
could not relinquish their savage mode of life, and hence 
they fe-ded gradually away. 




Sebastian Cabot 



UNSUCCESSFUL SETTLEMENTS. 29 



CHAPTER III. 

UNSUCCESSFUL SETTLEMENTS. 

The idea of Tisiting America with the view of a peace- book l 
fill and permanent settlement, rather than of conquest, ch. 3. 
seems to have originated with the English ; for we read ^ ^ 
that, as early as 1536, a merchant of London, named 1536. 
Hore, in connection with several gentlemen of family and Attempt 
character, attempted to colonize Newfoundland. But, nizT°" 
being in danger of starvation, they returned to England ^'<?^- 
in a French fishing-vessel which they had seized. landf 

The next attempt was made by a party of Huguenots, i;5(?.^ 
in the reign of Charles IX. of France, with the hope of huruc- 
escaping religious persecution. Under the auspices of the fo^v j^*^ 
celebrated Admiral Coligny, John Ribault, of Dieppe, in Florida. 
1562, sailed with two ships, not for Canada, but for more 
genial regions, and approached the continent in the lati- 
tude of St. Augustine. Discovering the St. John's 
river, he sailed to the Port Royal entrance, a spacious 
inlet at the southern extremity of Carolina. Here he 
built a fort, left a colony, and returned to France for a 
reinforcement. But none could be obtained, in conse- 
quence of the civil wars, and the colonists were obliged 
to relinquish their ground. This was much to be regret- 
ted, since the colonists were animated by religious ideas, 
as were the pilgrims who settled New England at a sub- 
sequent period. The next band of Frenchmen were of a 
different stamp — mere adventurers, under the command 
of Laudonniere, averse to order and greedy of gain. Dis- 
3* 



so FRENCH SETTLEMEiNTS IN FLORIDA. 

Rook I. appointed in the hopes of sudden wealth, they in part 

Ch. 3. turned pirates, and alienated the natives by their unpria- 

A. D, cipled and dissolute conduct. They soon were reduced to 

15G2 great extremity from famine, and were only saved from 

}^ _ actual starvation by the arrival of Ribault with provisions 

, ■ and new adventurers. But Spanish exclusiveness and 

r rencn ^ 

under jealousy would not permit the peaceful occupation of the 

uTe"e°"' pl^ce, and Fort Carolina was taken, and the colonists were 

murdered. These disasters happened in 1565, and, three 

years afterward, the Spaniards were the only people who 

inhabited any territory which now belongs to the United 

1565. States. The settlement of St. Augustine, for more than 

s«'.ttie- forty years, was the only European colony which proved 

St. Au- permanent, on the Atlantic coast, north of the Gulf of 

gustine. Mexico. 

KngHsh ^^^ ^^ "^^^ ^^^ until the reign of Elizabeth, that the 
roioniza- English made any serious effort to colonize the new world. 
der Eli- The expedition of the Cabots in the reign of Henry VIII., 
zabeth. ^jj^ ^|^g voyagcs of WiUoughby and Chancellor during the 
reign of Mary, were for discovery rather than settlement. 
Navigators sought to discover either the north-west pas- 
sage to India, or the precious metals, which were supposed 
to exist even on the frozen shores of Labrador. 

It was the fisheries of Newfoundland which suggested 

I r^r> the first sober views of colonization to the English mind. 

I [urn- 111 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained a liberal patent 

ihrey ^ ^f jurisdiction, for six years, over a territory extending 

voyages, six hundred miles from any spot he might successfully 

colonize. But his voyages were a continued series of 

disasters, and he himself finally lost his life in a little 

bark of ten tons, in which he foolishly attempted to 

return to England, after the failure of his hopes. 

His step-brother, who made an effort to realize his de- 
signs, was no less a person than the celebrated Sir Walter 



VIRGINIA GRANTED TO RALEIGH. 81 

Raleigh, one of the great wits who adorned the court of book i. 
the " Virgin Queen" — a scholar, a courtier, and a soldier ch. 3. 
— a man, indeed, of universal genius, but chiefly distin- ^ jy 
guished for his spirit of reckless adventure. He obtained 1580. 
a similar patent to the one granted to Gilbert, and sent sir wai 
Amidas and Barlow with two ships to the American ^^.J^ 
coast. They landed, not on the barren shores of New- patent, 
foundland, but in those genial regions where stately oaks, 
flowering magnolias, and luxuriant vines, promised ferti- 
lity and invited to repose. This beautiful country they 
called Virginia, in honour of their queen ; and so glowing 
and enthusiastic were the accounts they gave of it on their 
return, that a large expedition of seven ships was fitted 1585. 
out, in 1585, with sanguine colonists, under the command ^^°«^ 

' ^ ' ^ _ ' unsuc- 

of Sir Richard Grenville. After various perils they cessfui 
reached the Roanoke, and their vessels returned to ^^^^ 
England. 

The natives, though inclined to be friendly at first, 
were not pleased to see the strangers occupy their hunt- 
ing-grounds with the idea of a permanent settlement. 
Moreover, they were provoked by various acts of injustice. 
The governor. Lane, was also unequal to his duties, and 
permitted himself to be diverted from them by a foolish 
search for gold. The men, too, sighed to return, after 
the first flush of enthusiasm had passed. They dreaded 
famine, and they feared the Indians. Impelled by no 
lofty motives, they abandoned the settlement before the 
year elapsed, having induced Sir Francis Drake, who had 
visited them with twenty-three ships, to transport them to 
their native land. 

Scarcely had they sailed, when three ships arrived, with -1-0^ 
new adventurers; and in the following year one hundred -white 
and fifty additional colonists were landed, over whom John <^'0^«r- 

^ . . nor of 

White was appointed Governor. But they were soon vkgiuia 



32 gosnold's direct passage. 

Book I. reduced to great necessities, and the Governor returned to 
Ch. 3. England to solicit aid. His importunities were unfortu- 
^ j)_ nately disregarded, in consequence of the excitement which 
1590. was produced by the fears of Spanish invasion. It was 
not until 1590, two years after the arrival of the last 
colonists, that White returned with the promised assist- 
ance. But he returned only to find a deserted colony. 
No traces remained of the settlers he had left on the 
island of Roanoke. They had all perished from famine, 
or the vengeance of the Indians. 
1602. Two years after, Bartholomew Gosnold made a direct 
Gosnoid passage to America, avoiding the usual route of the Ca- 

discoV" 

ers Cape naries and West India Islands, and landed on one of the 

^^^" Elizabeth Islands, near Nantucket. Having seen the 

country in June, he formed too favourable an idea of its 

fertility. From his representations, the historian Hak- 

luyt, one of the Prebends of Westminster, induced some 

merchants of Bristol to found a colony ; but nothing was 

done, except the further exploration of the New England 

coast. 

1605. About the beginning of the seventeenth century, the 

Settle- Kins; of France granted to one of his courtiers a vast 

mentof . 

Port tract of country, from the fortieth to the forty-sixth de- 
^^ ■ gree of north latitude, called Acadie ; and four ships were 
sent out to the new territory, with a view chiefly of se- 
curing a monopoly of the fur trade. The results of the 
expedition were, the discovery of the rivers St. John and 
St. Croix, the examination of the coasts of Maine and 
Massachusetts, and the settlement of Port Royal, aban- 
doned however in 1606. 

James I. of England viewed with distrust and jealousy 
these movements of the French, and, to prevent their 
occupation of the country, encouraged his subjects in new 
and more extensive plans of permanent settlement. Un- 



of 
ginia 



NEW PROJECTS OF COLONIZATION. 33 

der bis auspices, two new companies were formed, by book i. 
wbose efforts America was finally colonized. Their object Ch. a. 
was the possession of the country. The idea of a north- a. d. 
west passage to India was beginning to be regarded as chi- 160G. 
merical, and more enlarged views of colonization supplanted "^^^^^^ ^' 
the notions of the early visitants. Still, the difficulties to charter 
be surmounted, arising from the character of the wilderness gettio-" 
to be reclaimed, and the hostility of the Indian whose ^^^^ ^^ 

1 • 1 • 1 1 Virgin! 

huntmg-grounds were invaded, were even yet not appro 
ciated. 

The benefits which had been expected to result to Eng- Resuita 
land and France had thus far proved delusive. Gold and voyageL 
silver had not been obtained, and many valuable lives had 
been lost. Great sums had also been expended in unprofit- 
able speculation. It seems to be the destiny of nations to 
make real progress only through labour, sacrifices, and sor- 
rows. Nothing had yet been obtained except sad experi- 
ences. These, however, served as lights to point out dan- 
gers which could be learned only by experiment. Men are 
ever doomed to pay dearly for their experiences. The 
early navigators did little else than stimulate curiosity 
and provoke adventure. They returned to Europe with 
only specimens of the furs and trees which subsequently 
were to prove important articles of commerce. There was 
one plant which they early introduced, however, whose 
value has been increasing with advancing civilization, as 
a source of wealth to the producer, if not of utility to tha 
consumer. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first to teach the 
use of tobacco to the European world. Who can tell the 
ultimate results of the introduction of this wonderful 
plant? Is the world better or worse for this gift of 
Ilaleigh to the courtiers of Queen Elizabeth ? 







Captain Smith Explaining the Compass. 



34 



BOOK II. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 

If anything connected with the history of America is b^q^ jj^ 
grand or romantic, it is the struggles of the early colonists ^j^ ^ 
to plant themselves, securely and permanently, in an un- A. d. 
known wilderness, far from the realms of civilization, and -'-t'^o. 
in continual danger of annihilation from the hostility of i>iffi™i- 

, . p . . , ties at- 

savage enemies, the scarcity of provisions, unaccustomed tending 
changes of climate, and an entirely new mode of life, gg^^.j^'^^^ 
These struggles have an inherent interest which will never ments. 
pass away, because they illustrate great and glorious prin- 
ciples of human action. They not only show singular 
enterprise and intrepidity, but, in many instances, were 
prompted by the most elevated moral sentiments. The 
colonization of the country furnishes some of the most 
remarkable examples of courage, energy, magnanimity, 
and faith, which are to bo found in the history of man- 
kind. It therefore claims the attention of all elevated 
minds, and of the young people of America especially, 
since it presents the toils and sacrifices of their ancestors, 
by which alone they were enabled to lay the foundation 
of a great republic. In no subsequent period were such 
great deeds done, and such lofty virtues generated, if we 
except the revolutionary contest alone. 

(35) 



36 EARLY COLONIZATION. 

Book II- The history of colonization has not only a moral and 

Ch.i. romantic interest, but also a philosophical importance. 

A. D. We are led to study the causes of that great movement, 

1606. and, hence, contemplate those great ideas and principles 

tol-icar which produced emigration. And almost every movement 

import- and every principle of the early settlers have had a de- 

eariy co- cidcd influence on the condition and welfare of their de- 

lomza- scendants. We can trace a connection between the 

tion. 

earliest events and the formation of great institutions. It 
should be the aim of the historian to present these, and 
these chiefly; for how insignificant and devoid of perma- 
nent interest are the petty jealousies and contests of colo- 
nial life, when compared with the spiritual agencies and 
great events which are connected with the progressive 
development and ultimate expansion of the American 
colonies ! 
Causes ^^^ ^c are obliged, in surveying the progress of colo- 
which nization, to examine the settlement of each colony by 

led to CO- . . J J 

lonizar itsclf, sincc different principles animated different settlers, 
°^' and since each colony was planted under peculiar circum- 
stances, which have affected the subsequent condition of 
the most powerful States. At one time the love of gain, 
and, at another, a restless passion for adventure, sent co- 
lonists to the new world. Again, the desire to worship 
God, unrestricted by civil or ecclesiastical authority, and 
still again, a craving for greater civil liberty, were ruling 
motives among the emigrants. Sometimes all these prin- 
ciples and passions were combined, and operated together; 
and, at other times, only some of them were discoverable. 
And then they operated with greater or less intensity in 
different sections, sometimes producing bigotry, acrimony, 
and exclusiveness ; and, in other places, favouring gene- 
rous equality and toleration. It was religious ideas chiefly 
W'hich planted Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Maryland, 



CAUSES WHICH FAVOURED COLONIZATION. 87 

Carolina, and Pennsylvania j and yet, in all these colo- book n. 
nies, different states of society were produced, although, Ch. i. 
in each separate one, the early settlers transmitted to pos- a. d. 
terity their peculiar sentiments and virtues. 1606. 

The earliest English settlement on the shores of North Roman- 
America was Virginia. Its early history is as romantic ry ofthe 

as that of any of the colonies, but not so sublime, since it s^**^®- 

1 .11-, . /. 1-11 ™^°* «^ 

was colonised by adventurers m quest of mere worldly Virginia 

and material objects. Moreover, they belonged, for the 
most part, to a different class of English society from that 
in which either the Puritans, the Catholics, or the Qua- 
kers, mingled. They were more aristocratic, more de- 
voted to pleasure, more refined, perhaps, in manners and 
taste. They were less religious, not so lofty in their 
views, and not so well fitted to endure hardship and 
privation. 

The condition of England in the early part of the seven- Condi- 
teenth century favoured adventure in America. The England 
prosperity of Spain and Portugal excited emulation and 
the desire of sudden wealth. A redundant population 
also sought new means of support. All ordinary occupa- 
tions were filled with supernumeraries. Many enterpris- 
ing people, who had served in the wars of Elizabeth, were 
thrown out of employment. Men of wealth expected to 
reap extravagant returns for all capital employed in the 
new world, all parts of which were supposed to abound in 
the precious metals. Great commercial prospects were 
held out by adventurers to the credulous and the sanguine. 

In this state of the public mind, James I. granted, in james r. 
the year 1606, an ample patent to a company of noble- Charter* 
men, gentlemen, and merchants, in and around London, for the 
for the exclusive possession of a belt of territory extend- ment of 
ing from thirty-four to thirty-eight degrees of north lati- ^ ^^s^^^* 
tude. Whoever paid 12/. 10s., about sixty dollars, into 
4 



S8 NEWPORT S VOYAGE. 

Book II. the company's treasury, was entitled to a hundred acres 
ch. 1. of land, and to a hundred acres more when the first lot 
A. D. was cultivated. And every emigrant was also allowed an 
1606-. equal quantity of land. The colonists were permitted to 
Con^. transport, free of duty, for seven years, what arms and 
tions provision they required, to search for mines, to coin money, 
charter, to impose duties on all vessels trading to their ports, and to 
enjoy all the ordinary civil and political pri\dleges of Eng- 
lishmen. But this charter was not favourable to the de- 
velopment of liberty. It gave the council in England the 
general superintendence of common affairs ; while the su- 
preme legislative authority, and the control of all appoint- 
ments, were vested in the king. The aim of the company 
and of the colonists was money, rather than the extension 
of democratic ideas ; and even the welfare of the colonists 
was made subservient to the interests of the patrons at 
home, who sought the means of improving their fortunes. 
The first The company gave immediate attention to the settle- 
n "S^o- ^^^* ^^ Virginia. Christopher Newport sailed on the 
loiiists. 19th of December, with three small vessels and one hun- 
dred and five emigrants, to colonize the unknown wilderness. 
And even these were men peculiarly unfitted for the task. 
They were mostly adventurers, unaccustomed to manual 
labour, and connected with families of consideration. They 
were disunited among themselves, and filled with jealousy in 
view of talents superior to their own. The only man in 
the company fit to rule them was Captain John Smith, and 
of him they were envious and suspicious. 

The voyage was made by way of the West Indies, and 
voyage, lasted four months. It was the intention of Newport to 
land at Roanoke; but a storm drove his ships to the 
Chesapeake Bay, and they anchored at Old Point Com- 
fort, at the mouth of James river. After spending three 
weeks in exploring the river and adjacent country, they 



SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN. 39 

disembarked thirty miles from the mouth of the river, at book ir. 
a spot they named Jamestown, in honour of the king, — cii. i. 
the oldest English settlement in America. A. i). 

The government of the infant colony was entrusted to 1607. 
a provincial council, the names of which had been kept in ^g^^^f 
a sealed box during the voyage. Of these, Edward James- 
Wingfield was chosen President — an intriguing man, un- 
worthy of his post, and unfit to be entrusted with power 
in such an important crisis. Smith was excluded from 
the council, in consequence of the jealousy of the Presi- 
dent, although his name was on the list. 

While the men were employed in felling trees for their Expiora- 
new abodes, Newport and Smith explored the river, and captain 
visited the residence of Powhatan, j ust below the falls of John 
Richm^ond. This person was the most celebrated and 
powerful of the Indian chieftains in that section of the 
country, and in spite of the murmurs of the savages, over 
whom he exercised almost absolute rule, he received the 
strangers with great hospitality. 

In June, Newport returned to England with his ships, suffer- 
and the inexperienced and divided colonists were left to ihfcoio. 
struggle with disease, famine, hardship, and danger. Be- nists. 
fore September, half of them died, including Gosnold, 
the projector of the enterprise. The marshes and the 
summer heats generated disease among men unaccustomed 
to the climate. Added to these evils, it was soon found 
that the natives were unfriendly. The President, Wing- 
field, was not only incapable of shielding the colonists, 
but even contemplated desertion, and actually embezzled 
the choicest stores. John Ratclifie was chosen his suc- 
cessor, but was equally incapable; and the government 
fell at last into the hands of the ablest, even Smith, 
who succe<3dcd in imparting a gleam of sunshine into the 
night of gloom and desolation. 



40 CAPTAIN JOHN. SMITH. 

Book IT. With none of the early colonists are associated more 
Ch. 1. talent, enterprise, and courage, than with this remarkable 
A. D. Kian — a soldier, a traveller, a philanthropist, of decided 
1607. reputation, before he was thirty years of age. He had 
Charac- visited most of the countries of Europe. He had fought 
hlstr*^ for the independence of Holland, and had also enlisted 
ry of against the Turks. He had been a prisoner in Wallachia, 
^^ ' and a slave at Constantinople. He slew his taskmaster 
in the Crimea, and returned, after innumerable perils, to 
his native country. No one entered with more enthu- 
siasm than he into the project of colonizing Virginia ; and 
it was by his experience and sagacity that the infant 
colony was saved from ruin. 
His cap- His enterprising spirit, however, led him into unneces- 
ture^by g^^j dangers, which nearly cost him his life. One of his 
dians. advcutures was attended with circumstances which still 
invest his name with all that is romantic and interesting. 
He had been exploring the wilderness, and was taken 
captive by the Indians. Por a time he amused the hos- 
tile savages by showing them the wonders of a pocket 
compass. But, at last, they led him as a victim to their 
chieftain, who decreed his death, as a man dangerous to 
Indian interests. He was dragged to the ground, his 
head placed upon a stone, and the warlike Powhatan stood 
over him with his club. As the fatal blow was about to 
Poca- l>6 given, the chieftain's daughter, Pocahontas, a child 
hontas twclvc years of age, clasped the prisoner's head in her 
life, arms, and eloquently besought his life. Her entreaties 
were respected, and the Governor was spared, as if by 
direct interposition of Heaven, for the future welfare of 
the colony. 

When he returned to Jamestown, after seven weeks' 
absence. Smith found the colony reduced to thirty-eight 
men, discouraged, desperate, and resolved to abandon it. 



CHARACTER OF THE COLONISTS. 41 

But he succeeded in keeping up their spirits until New- ^^o^ Al- 
port arrived with supplies^ and one hundred and twenty Ch. i. 
new settlers. These were, unfortunately, like those who a. d. 
had preceded them, gentlemen adventurers, unused to 1607. 
hardship and disdainful of toil — men whose thoughts Rein- 
were upon gold, and not on substantial welfare, and still ^°'''^" 

. ^ mentof 

less upon rehgious ideas. Mistaking some glittering sand the coio- 
for the anticipated treasures, they filled one of their ships ^^' 
with the useless dirt, and returned to England. Smith , 

was wiser; he loaded the other ship with cedar, skins, 
and furs; and these proved more valuable than gold 
itself to the ultimate welfare of the country. 

Moreover, he employed himself in making useful ex- Smith's 
plorations, and actually visited every inlet, river, and bay ^l^-^^' 
on both sides of the Chesapeake, making accurate maps tration. 
and charts, and conciliating the Indians by presents and 
kindness. Such a man was a noble benefactor to the co- 
lony over which he presided. But the patentees in Eng- 
land were dissatisfied. They cared but little for his genius, 
and still less for his discoveries. They only wanted a 
return for their investments. Disappointed in this, they 
threatened to desert the colony. 

Then were developed the great energies and resources 
of the President. He taught the goldsmiths, and re- 
finers, and vagabond gentlemen, who had hoped to make 
their fortunes, that self-reliance which is greater than any 
pecuniary reward. He accustomed them to fatigue and 
labour, showed them how to protect themselves, and 
induced them to plant corn and build houses. 

Still, the patentees were vexed that no gold was found, Paten- 
nnd attributed the failure to the provincial council, which ^tij,Jir^ 
of course was more anxious to advance the interests of the 
colony, than enrich greedy merchants at home. They ■ 

therefore applied to the King for a new charter, by which 

4* 



42 SECOND CHARTER OF VirvGINIA. 

Book n. all authority should be withdrawn from the colonial rulers. 
Ch. 1. It was readily granted, and, in 1G09, the territory assigned 
A^ j)_ to the corporation was enlarged by a grant of two hundred 
1600. miles north and two hundred south of Old Point Comfort, 
James T. ^nd extending west to the Pacific. The corporation ob- 
grants Gained the appointment of all the officers, and the chief 

another ^ ^ ' 

charter. Command was entrusted to a Governor. Lord De la War 
LordDe leccived the appointment, which was a good one, this 
appoint- nobleman being as distinguished for virtues as he was for 
ed go- rank. 

vernor. . » , , 

Under the auspices of so good a man, the greatest ea- 
gerness prevailed to colonize Virginia; and nine ships, 
with five hundred emigrants, departed from England. 
Only seven of the vessels, however, arrived; and these 
were freighted with the most unpromising set of men that 
ever embarked on a scheme of colonization — men without 
experience or character, broken-down tradesmen, impove- 
rished men of rank, and libertines sent away by parents 
who wished to avoid the disgrace they entailed upon their 
families. 
Discon- Such people could only give trouble to Smith, who re- 
theti^ tained command until the arrival of the governor, or his 
lony. deputies. The new settlers fomented rebellion, alienated 
the Indians, and encouraged every species of disorder. 
Smith was obliged to send the ringleaders to England, 
Depart- and shortly after to follow them himself, in consequence 
Smith. ^^ ^ wound he had received from the explosion of some 
gunpowder. 

His departure was an incalculable loss. The colonists, 
unprincipled, discontented, profligate and lazy, were a 
prey to Indians, to famine, and to disease. So great were 
their sufferings, and so complete was their despair, that 
they were about to burn the settlement, and embark in 
four miserable pinnaces for the fisheries on the banks of 



dale's administration, 43 

Newfoundland. But the timely arrival of Lord Dc la book it. 
War restored hope and confidence, and, under his mild Ch. i. 
and judicious administration, prosperity again dawned a. d. 
upon the colonists. The rites of religion were observed, 1610. 
industry was exercised, and provisions were garnered for Arrival 
future contingencies. of Lord 

Lord De la War, unfortunately, was obliged to return. War. 
after a brief sojourn, to England, on account of ill-health. 
He was succeeded, in 1611, by Sir Thomas Dale. This sirThos. 
governor was harsh and injudicious, and a rigorous mili- 
tary government succeeded the mild administration of 
Lord De la War. He was soon supplanted by Sir Tho- 
mas Gates, who arrived with a new reinforcement of men 
and supplies. Such was the miserable state of the colony, 
that he felt obliged to continue the strict military disci- 
pline introduced by Dale. It numbered, indeed, seven 
hundred men ; but these w^re generally unused to labour 
or restraint. 

The patentees realized no more return under the new Third 
charter than under the first one, and, as their object was ^f yj^J 
gain alone, they again applied for another and more gi^^ia- 
favourable patent. This was accordingly granted to them 
in 1612, and they were invested with the right to all the 
islands of the coast within three hundred leagues of Vir- 
ginia. A lottery was also given to them, by which 3000/. 
was realized. 

About this time, a domestic event of considerable im- 1613. 
portance occurred. A scarcity prevailing, Captain Argall Seizure 
was despatched to the Potomac for a cargo of corn. Here ilontas. 
he found Pocahontas living in retirement. This noble 
creature he managed to decoy on board his vessel, carried 
her as a prisoner to Jamestown, and then basely demand- 
ed a ransom from her father. The indignant old chieftain 
rejected the ofier with disdain, and prepared his tribe for 



44 POCAHONTAS. 

Book II. revenge. An exterminating war would have resulted, had 
Ch. 1. not the angry father been soothed by the marriage of his 
A. D, daughter with John Rolfe, who had gained her afiFectious. 

1613. She was converted to Christianity, and gained universal 
Mar- respect for her exemplary virtues. She visited England, 
riage of ^hcrc shc died prematurely, but not until she had given 
iiontas. birth to a son, whom some of the best families of Virginia 

are proud to acknowledge as their ancestor. It was hoped 
that the example of Rolfe might have been followed by 
others, since but few of the colonists were married. .. But 
such a union was not to take place. The two races were to 
remain for ever distinct, and inveterately hostile. 

1614. In 1614, Dale resumed the government for two years, 
Daie^s during which some useful changes took place respecting 
tration. the Settlement of lands. Until this time, the colonists 

had lived upon the common stock ; and this colonial com- 
munism had produced idleness and discontent. It was 
found that no one would work for the public as he would 
for himself. The slothful trusted to the exertions of the 
industrious, and the industrious were discouraged by the 
idleness of the slothful. Accordingly, the land was di- 
vided into lots, and each family was obliged to support its 
members. Prosperity and industry were the results. 
Culture More corn was raised than was needed, and considerable 
Ind^t^ quantities were exported or sold to the Indians. Tobacco 
baceo. was extensively cultivated, and became alike the staple 
and the currency of the colony. The gold-seekers turned 
into planters, and, instead of servants of the company, 
became the proprietors of the soil they cultivated. 
1617. But the planters were still subject to an oppressive go- 
Oppres- vernment, which checked the growth of the colony. And 
vemo^. there was a frequent change of governors. George Yeard- 
ley succeeded Dale after two years' administration ; and, 
a year after, in 1617, he was supplanted by Captain Ar- 



DAWN OF LIBERTY. 46 

gall, whose rule was tyrannical in the extreme. Martial Book ii. 
law was recognised, and there was no security of life or Ch. i. 
property. Emigration nearly ceased ; for few would em- j^ j^ 
bark for a distant colony, where a more oppressive despot- 1619. 
, ism existed than in any of the military governments of change 
the European world. The colonists made so earnest an o^govcr. 

nor. 

appeal to the mercenary company at home, that Argall 
was removed, and Lord De la War consented to supply 
his place ; but this benevolent nobleman died on his out- 
ward passage, and the government was again entrusted to 
Yeardley, who had recently been knighted. 

He commenced his administration in 1619 with acts of Yeard- 
beneficence. The planters were confirmed in the posses- Jjfg'e^. 
sion of their lands, the old burdens were removed, martial minis- 
law was relaxed, and a colonial assembly was called, com- 
posed of the governor, the provincial council, and the 
deputies from the plantations, who were called burgesses, 

This infant assembly was the germ of popular liberty colonial 
in Virginia, and its acts gave great satisfaction. Civil ^^sem- 
freedom, as well as industry, received an impulse. Twelve 
hundred new settlers arrived, and among them sixty wo- 
men, who were speedily provided with husbands from 
among the colonists. Their influence was most happy. 
Domestic ties, for the first time, were formed ; and vir- 
tuous sentiments and industrious habits were cultivated. 
The colony rapidly increased, and numbered, in 1620, 
several thousands. 

The civil privileges which were obtained by the colo- The oo- 
nial assembly, were happily confirmed by the company at ^"""^^"^ 
home. Trial by jury was established, together with the civil 
ordinary privileges of Englishmen. The colonists were ' ^ ^' 
no longer servants of a commercial corporation, but citi- 
zens of a new republic. From this time, the power was 
virtually in the hands of the Colonial Parliament, which 



46 INTRODUCTION OF NEGRO SLAVES. 

Book il nursed the principles of liberty aad the interests of the 

Ch. 1. infant settlement. 

A. D. About this time, the captain of a Dutch trading vessel 
1620. sold to the colonists at Jamestown twenty negroes, whom 
Intro- he had brought from the coast of Guinea. Their number 
duction increased as the colonists had need of them, and they were 

of negro ' *' 

slaves, chiefly employed in the cultivation of tobacco. The intro- 
duction of African slavery made but little impression at 
the time, however pregnant it was with mighty conse- 
quences, which it does not fall within the province of this 
history to conjecture or discuss. 
Indian This great event, however, was insignificant to the 
ief and i^^^^s of the colonists. Compared with a domestic calamity 
schemes, which nearly proved fatal to the settlement. This was a 
war with the Indians, and the first war of any extent 
which had thus far taken place. The natives looked with 
great anxiety, indignation and jealousy at the growing 
encroachments of the English. Their settlements ex- 
tended one hundred and forty miles on both sides of 
James river; and they tilled the ground in blind confi- 
dence of their safety, and with increasing contempt for 
the Indians, who had been continually melting away. 
There were not over five thousand of them, including fif- 
teen hundred warriors, within sixty miles of Jamestown ; 
and these were unacquainted with the use of fire-arms, 
and scattered about in isolated hamlets. 
Plot to So long as Powhatan lived, he had continued in friendly 
massar intercourse with the invaders. But his successor, Ope- 

cre the _ ^ ' ^ 

whole chancanough, had difierent views and feelings. He hated, 
^ °°^' with the greatest intensity, those foreigners who had taken 
possession of the hunting-grounds of his ancestors, and who 
treated his people with so much indifierence and contempt. 
He therefore resolved to exterminate the English wher- 
ever they had made a settlement in his extensive territo- 



INDIAN MASSACRE. 47 

ries. But his tribe was too weak to cope with the invaders book n. 
in open warfare. He knew it was only by treachery and Ch. i. 
stratagem that his purpose could be accomplished. So, a. d. 
with impenetrable secrecy, a plot was laid to massacre all 1622 
the white people in the colony, without any regard to age 
or sex. 

The plot was fortunately revealed by a converted Indian The 
in time to save Jamestown, whose inhabitants prepared ^e^^ 
themselves for the attack. But the villages on the river 
were not so fortunate. On the 29th of March, 1622, at 
an appointed hour, the Indians simultaneously fell upon Indian 
the settlements on James river, and barbarously murdered ™^^" 
three hundred and forty-seven people. Moreover, the 
massacre was aggravated with all the tortures which 
Indian malice and ingenuity could suggest. 

This was the greatest calamity which the colony had 
ever suffered, and a bloody war was the natural result. 
For a while, confusion, desolation and grief reigned 
throughout the colony. Public works were abandoned. 
Fields were left untilled. Scarcity and sickness added to 
the gloom which pervaded the whole settlement. All 
plans of industry were abandoned for revenge ; and so 
terrible was this universal passion, so resolute were the 
colonists, that a war of extermination followed. The In- Indian 
dians, cunning as they were, proved no match for the ^^' 
Europeans in duplicity and treachery. They were en- 
trapped and slain, and driven like wild beasts from their 
ancient domain. 

War, famine and disease, had now reduced the colony ^i^^^^ 
f -om four thousand to twenty-five hundred souls ; yet their ^^^^^ "^ 
disasters were speedily repaired, and their numbers reple- lony. 
nished. The English at home, moved with generous 
pity, displayed unusual liberality, and sent out new re- 
cruits. In consequence, the colony soon recovered from 



48 DISSOLUTION OF THE COMPANY. 

Book n. its misfortunes ; but, alas ! only to fall into new per- 
ch. 1. plexities. 

A. D. The members of the company in England had been 
1624. disappointed in realizing commercial profit, and their meet- 
James i^gs had become scenes of disgraceful faction. Accounts 
subverts ^f ^j^^jj. ^j^cny and bold debates reached the ear of the 

the com- ° "^ ... 

pany's jcalous king, who soon pronounced the Virginia courts to 
chaxter, -^^ ^^^ ^ Seminary for a seditious parliament. He first 
attempted to control the elections. Failing in this, he 
resorted to intimidation, and resolved to annul their char- 
ter, but, if possible, in a constitutional manner. He sent 
commissioners to America, and they reported according 
to his wishes. An order in council decreed that the pri- 
vileges of the corporation should be subverted. It refused 
to surrender its charter. The king then resorted to the 
writ quo warranto, and a servile bench of judges decreed 
the dissolution of the company, which had thus far ex- 
pended 150,000Z. This act, which occurred in 1624, 
though unjust and tyrannical, operated favourably to the 
colonists ; for a commercial corporation, seeking a return 
for investments, was not likely to pay much attention to 
the social and moral advancement of the people whom 
they controlled. 
1625 James I. died before he had completed his schemes for 
Death of the government of the colony ; but Charles I. pursued 
James I. ^-^^ arbitrary policy which his fiither contemplated. He 
instituted a government which combined the unlimited 
prerogatives of an absolute prince, with the selfish maxims 
of a mercantile corporation. 
IQ29. 1° 1620, he gave the government into the hands of Sir 
Admin- John Harvey, who proved to be both insolent and tyran- 
of Har-^ nical. His administration was so odious, that the colo- 
^^y- nists complained, and succeeded in securing his impeach- 
ment. He was sustained in England, however, and re- 



Berkeley's administration. 49^ 

ccived a new commission. In 1639, he was succeeded by Book n. 
Sir Francis Wyat, and that gentleman again, two ^^ears after- Ch. i. 
wards, by Sir Wm. Berkeley, who favoured the institutions a. d. 
of freedom, though compelled by the king to impose severe 1642 
restrictions on the commerce of the colony. Many privi- *^ 
leges were, however, secured by the colonists, in spite of 
the tyrannical temper of the king, who was too deeply ^*^® 
engrossed with his parliamentary difficulties to bestow mentof 
niuch thought on the colony. Berkeley, who filled the j^^^^ ^ 
office of governor with great ability for thirty-six years, 
with the exception of a short interval, confirmed the plant- 
ers in their political privileges, and sustained the institu- 
tions of religion, as well as those of liberty. 

Virginia, in possession of all the civil and religious 
privileges it had ever claimed, or which were consistent 
with royal government, rapidly increased in wealth and 
population under the government of Berkeley, and conti- 
nued firm in its allegiance to the cause of Charles I. 
Zeal for royalty and for episcopacy characterized the aris- 
tocratic colonists, until new emigrations and new social 
institutions modified the temper of the people. 

Still, during the long administration of Berkeley, Change 
though judicious and benignant, a change gradually took political 
place in social life, which produced popular insurrections, ^^^*®"^ 
and, when these were suppressed, resulted in a state of lony. 
society more aristocratic than in other sections of the 
coimtry. 

The difficulties and dangers attending the first period 
of colonization, had bound the people together, and pro- 
duced considerable equality of feeling ; insomuch so, that 
the House of Burgesses, the first representative assembly 
in America, was elected by universal sufi"rage. All free- 
men, without exception, were entitled to vote. And even 
the indentured servants of the colony, when their term 
5 



50 CHANGES IN THE CONDITION OF THE COLONISTS. 

Book n. of Service had expired, became electors, and might be 
Oh. 1. chosen burgesses. 

A. D. Each officer was directly or indirectly chosen by the 
1642 people, and each parish was left to take care of itself. 
*2 Tranquillity and a rapid increase of population were the 
' fruit of this representative democracy; and, at the time 
Charles II. was restored, Virginia contained thirty thou- 
sand people. 
Germs Still, there were the germs of aristocracy among the 
ofaristcv gg|;^igj.g^ which ultimately became developed. For any 
person whom a planter should transport at his own charge 
into Virginia, he could claim fifty acres of land ; and as 
large numbers of indentured servants were brought over, 
gi'eat proprietors existed from the beginning. As these 
possessions were generally transmitted to the eldest son, 
family pride was engendered as in ancient feudal times, 
jjjgg of Moreover, a plebeian population arose from the descend- 
^^^ ants of those servants who had been doomed to a tempo- 
and rary servitude, feome of them even were convicts, trans- 
parties. pQj.j.g(j f^p political offcnccs merely. These became a 
labouring and inferior class, which increased dispropor- 
tionately with the other population. 

In addition, the labouring class was vastly multiplied 
by the increase of negro slaves, who at no time possessed 
civil or social privileges, and who were, of course, regarded 
as mere property, like land and cattle. As these increased, 
the distinctions in society widened. 
A rising -^^^ *^^ power of the rising aristocracy was still far- 
aristo- ther increased by the absence of all popular education, 
cracj- Ttjgpe ^Qj.Q UQ schools, and the rising population received 
but little intellectual culture. ^' Every man," said Berke- 
ley, "instructs his children according to his ability; and 
I thank God there are no free schools nor printing- 
presses." 



EARLY ARISTOCRACY OP VIRGINIA. 51 

The great proprietors, in possession of increasing tracts Book it. 
of land, superior in intelligence, and accustomed to con- Ch. i. 
trol, from the servility, ignorance, and poverty of a large a, d. 
part of the labouring class, naturally aspired to the go- 16-42 
vernment of the country, and the perpetuation of their *2. 
power and privileges by legislative enactments. They ' * 
naturally became the magistrates of a country where po- Power 
pulation was scattered, and where there were no large jf^J^' 
towns, nor municipal governments. They also were proprie- 
selected to be members of the council, and of the legis- 
lature. They gradually grasped the military, judicial, 
legislative, and executive powers. On the restoration of 
Charles II., in 16G6, these great landed proprietors, in 
possession of political power, formed a natural alliance 
with the royal governors and officers, and were prepared 
for additional usurpations. The tidings of the Restora- 
tion had diffused universal joy and enthusiasm throughout 
the colony, which had ever inclined to the royal cause. 
The general excitement in favour of royalty led to the 
election of an assembly composed almost entirely of 
Cavaliers and landholders. 

Possessing an ascendency in the legislature, the rising 
aristocracy, true to its instincts, modified the constitution, 
and effected changes in favour of landed proprietors and 
men of wealth. The Episcopal Church was made the Episco- 
religion of the State, and in every parish twelve vestry- ^^'^^'. ®^ 
men were appointed, with power to assess taxes and fill edi^y 
vacancies in their own number. Nonconformists were 
excluded from many civil privileges, and some sects were 
cruelly persecuted. Religious freedom was suppressed. 
A member of the House of Burgesses was even excluded 
because he was well-affected towards the Quakers. 

And this aristocratic legislature established a perpetual 
revenue to the royal officers by a permanent tax on all 



52 ARISTOCRATIC LEGISLATION. 

Book u. exported tobacco — the main staple of the colony — which 

Ch. 1. thus enabled the governor to rule independently of the 

A. D. people. Moreover, the justices of the peace, appointed 

1G42 by the governor, held monthly courts in their respective 

^2 counties, and had the power to levy county taxes; which 

was so fi\Y abused, that the commissioners levied taxes to 

Thearis- meet their own private expenses. 

tocracy ^ ^ 

grasp all Nor was this all. The law which limited the duration 
power. ^£ assemblies to two years was repealed, and the legisla- 
tors assumed to themselves an indefinite term of office. 
For fourteen years this legislature retained authority, and 
yielded it up at last only to a popular insurrection. And 
the Burgesses were not content with power alone. They 
voted for themselves extravagant wages, to be paid by a 
tax on the people. 

Even the freedom of elections was assailed. The she- 
riffs, appointed by the governor, and belonging to the 
aristocratic class, made out false returns. In addition, 
the system of universal suffrage was abolished, and none 
were eligible as electors but freeholders and housekeepers. 
Thus the new legislature voted away the liberties of 
the people, and passed laws to perpetuate a landed 
aristocracy. 
Rise of a ^^^ with the growth and ascendency of aristocratio 
^^^7 power, there also arose a generation of people who viewed 
lousde- this power with great uneasiness. There were scattered 
^^^^^^' through the colony young men who, reared in isolation, 
accustomed to the freedom of the wilderness, and trained 
to self-dependence and hardy exercises, were resolved to 
recover the privileges which all had originally enjoyed. 
They met together in secret to complain of their hard- 
ships, and devise the means of resistance. A struggle 
was at hand between wealth and prerogative on the one 
side, and popular freedom on the other. There was only 



THE CLASH OF PARTIES. 53 

needed an occasion to precipitate matters into actual book ii. 
rebellion. Ch. i. 

An occasion was at last presented by the pretended ne- a. d. 
cessity of an Indian war. A young planter was found, 1642 
of fine talents and enterprising character, who had been ^2 
bred to the bar in England, to sympathize with the de- 
mocracy. His name was Nathaniel Bacon, and he did all Schemes 
in his power to foment the popular discontents, perhaps con. 
with a view, as is the case with most demagogues, of rising 
into power by exciting the prejudices and passions of the 
people. Or, he may have been a true patriot, burning 
with indignation against the oppression and injustice which 
the governing class had exercised. 

The wise and sagacious old governor perfectly under- 
stood the character and designs of Bacon — that he wished 
to fan the flame of Indian war, and then, when he had 
collected sufficient force to subdue the savages, and had 
returned with his followers to their homes with the glory 
of victory, to make use of their power and the popular 
enthusiasm to overturn the government. For it should 
be stated that Bacon had solicited permission to raise a 
force and attack the Indians, and had been refused ; and 
very properly, too, if order and law were to be maintained 
by an aristocratic government, and if the Indians were not 
needlessly to be destroyed. 

There were doubtless Indian aggressions ; but all diffi- indiaA 
eulties with them might have been easily settled, and a ^f^^^^ 
war might have been prevented. It seems that the Seneca 
Indians had driven the Susquehannas from their abode at 
the head of the Chesapeake to the English settlements in 
Maryland, and some outrages had been committed. The 
people in Maryland invoked the aid of Virginia, and a 
body of men had gone to their assistance. Mutual acts 
of hostility were perpetrated, which ended by the Indians 
5* 



54 WAR WITH THE INDIANS. 

J^QQ^ JJ- sending six of their chieftains with authority to treat for 
Ch. 1. peace. 

A. D. Keconciliation was in liae power of the Virginians, and 
1676. was desired by the governor himself. But it was not 
Indian poace they wanted. They desired an excuse to raise a 
^^' large body of men, and further they were animated by a 
cruel desire to annihilate their enemies. The govern- 
ment, however, took what measures it thought necessary 
to guard against Indian hostilities, among which was the 
erection of forts. 

The democracy denounced these forts as a folly — as a 
mean and cowardly system of warfare, and demanded more 
vigorous measures ; ha\'ing all the while an ulterior point 
in view, which being understood by Berkeley, he refused 
permission to Bacon to raise the forces he desired. 
Bacon But Bacou, Sustained by the people, resolved to act 

™a^in^r without the consent of the constituted authorities, and 
the In- easily raised five hundred men to march against the In- 
dians, on the plea of the necessity of the case. This was 
in 1676, fourteen years after the liberties of the people 
had been abridged by the aristocratic legislature. 
iBacon Scarcely had Bacon marched forth with his men against 

SaTmed ^^® Indians, than they were proclaimed traitors, and a 
« traitor, forcc was raised to disperse them. Bacon, however, con- 
ducted a successful expedition, routed and destroyed the 
Indians, and returned in triumph to his home. In the 
mean time, the lower counties had risen in arms, and de* 
manded the dissolution of the Assembly. With the mass 
of the people against him, and a triumphant leader at 
their head, the old governor was obliged to yield, and the 
hated assembly was dissolved. 
He as- " In the choice of new members, the late disfranchise- 



sumes 
power. 



ment of freemen was little regarded, and Bacon, with 
others infected with his sentiments, were returned. The 



REBELLION OF BACON. 55 

Churcli aristocracy was broken up, and the elective fran- book n. 
chise restored. Arbitrary assessments were prohibited, Ch. i. 
and the fees of the governor curtailed. Above all, Bacon ^^ p. 
was made commander-in-chief of the forces, much to the 167G. 
satisfaction of the people. 

But Berkeley refused to sign his commission, and Bacon civu 
then extorted it by force of arms. The people rallied to ^"* 
his standard, and so vigorous were his measures, that 
tranquillity was soon restored. 

The people looked upon Bacon as their deliverer. Not Conflict 
so did Berkeley. He viewed the enterprising defender of gerke^^ 
the colony as a rebel, and caused him to be proclaimed as ^^y and 
such. Bacon, in return, caused Berkeley to be denounced 
as a tyrant, and summoned the people of Virginia to arms 
to resist tyranny and oppression. His call was responded 
to ; the public mind seemed to yield to his direction, and 
a large force was assembled, both to resist Berkeley, and 
to prosecute the war against the Indians. 

Berkeley was in danger of being deserted and sup- 
planted. His situation was critical. He therefore pro- 
mised liberty to the servants of the insurgents, if they 
would join his ranks. He also claimed the assistance of 
the vessels in the harbour. 

Both parties prepared for the civil war which now dis- 
tracted the colony. The friends of popular liberty rallied 
around Bacon — the advocates of constitutional authority 
supported the governor. 

Jamestown, the largest settlement of the colony, was james- 
deserted by the royalists, and was taken possession of by g°^\!^ 
the rebels. Fearful, however, that they were not strong 
enough to retain it, they resolved to burn it; and the 
village was accordingly destroyed, that no shelter might 
remain to the enemy. 

Bacon then resolved to prosecute the war still further, 



56 Culpepper's administration. 

Book u. and revolutionize the colony ; but, while he was preparing 

ch, 1. measures for more active hostilities, he sickened and died. 

A. D. His death left his party without a head, and it was easily 

1677. suppressed by the old authorities. Berkeley regained his 

The re- powcr, and exercised it with great severity. Twenty-two 

beiiion persons were hanged as rebels; and many more would 

pressed, have expiated their resistance on the scaffold, had they 

not fled into inaccessible retreats. " The old fool,^' said 

Charles II., " has taken more lives in that naked country, 

than I did for the murder of my father." 

Thus was suppressed, in 1677, a rebellion which had 
for its object the attainment of popular liberty. After 
the royal authority was restored, and offenders punished, 
Berkeley returned to England, and was succeeded by Lord 
Lord Culpepper, who was appointed governor for life, 
p^r aT Whenever a rebellion is unsuccessful, the old authority 
pointed is re-established with increased force. It was so in Vir- 
nor. ginia. Freedom now rested with the royal will. Assem- 
blies of the people were called but once in two years, and 
the members were elected only by freeholders. All the 
acts of the assembly which had sustained Bacon were 
annulled. Each church was subjected to a self-perpetu- 
ating vestry. Taxes were levied in an oppressive form, 
and the elective franchise was circumscribed. 
1680. Affairs were still more lamentable under the adminis- 
impov- tration of Lord Culpepper, to whom had been granted the 
ment of proprietorship of a part of Virginia. He ruled only with 
"^irgi- the view of increasing his emoluments. The country be- 
came impoverished. The price of tobacco constantly de- 
clined, and left the planters without hope. The governor 
had no compassion for the people, and no sympathy with 
the province which he ruled. So miserable was the con- 
dition of the colonists, that they appealed, in 1683, to the 
king, to recall the grant to Culpepper and Arlington, 



ma. 



TYRANNY OF ROYAL GOVERNORS. 67 

which request, in view of existing circumstances; was at book ii. 
length granted. Ch. i. 

Soon after, Culpepper, notwithstanding his patent had ^_ jy 
constituted him governor for life, was superseded by Lord 1683 
Effingham. The new governor followed in the steps of ^^ 
his predecessor, and resorted to the usual course of extor- 
tion and injustice. Still, the population increased, though 
not by voluntary emigrants. State prisoners and culprits 
were sent out to cultivate the land as indentured servants. 
There was no inducement for men who loved the institu- 
tions of freedom to emigrate to Virginia, where industry 
was depressed, and royal authority severe. The king ap- 
pointed all the officers of the colony — the executive, the 
council, the judges, the sheriffs, the county commissioners, 
and local magistrates. Virginia had no town meetings, 
no municipal institutions. Even the assembly was chosen 
by a restricted franchise. 

These severe measures and arbitrary rule, however, Discon- 
caused disaffection, and favoured the spirit of resistance. ^^'^^^ ^^ 

, , . the co- 

And so threatening did affairs become, that the governor, louists. 
from fear, was at last obliged to practise moderation. 
Finding the public displeasure general and uncontrollable, 
in view of his extortion and tyrannical severities, and that 
the colony was resolved to carry its complaints to James 
II., he embarked for England. But, before he arrived, 
the revolution in that country had placed new sovereigns 
on the throne. 

Virginia, however, did not immediately gain much by 1692. 
that glorious and bloodless revolution. King William sirEj- 
appointed Sir Edmund Andros, in 1692, to the office of ^ndros 
governor — a man who had previously distinguished him- ^^'■'^^' 
self by his arbitrary career as governor of New England. 
But his authority was circumscribed by the poVer of the 
assembly, which, after the PJnglish Revolution, obtained 



58 OPPRESSIVE RULE OF ANDROS. 

Book II. additional power, not merely in Virginia, but in all the 
Ch. 1. colonies. By that great event, they were freed from their 
A. D. dependence on the personal character of the king. He 
1692. still continued to appoint governors, and men of sordid 
Condi- feelings and narrow views occasionally were entrusted with 
tionof power. But the provincial assemblies generally found 
ny on mcaus to avoid the effects of their avarice, in proportion 
lutioii^^ as the spirit of freedom gained ground among them. 
1688. Notwithstanding the evils which the colony had suf- 

fered from royal and aristocratic influences, it continually 
increased in numbers and wealth. In 1688, the inhabit- 
ants numbered about sixty thousand, of whom, however, 
one-half were slaves ; and as many as twenty-five thousand 
hogsheads of tobacco were exported, on which the duty 
collected in England amounted to over 135,0007. At this 
period, the province contained forty-eight parishes and 
twenty counties. In every parish was built a church, and 
the clergyman received for his salary a house, a glebe, and 
sixteen thousand pounds of tobacco. The Bishop of Lon- 
don was the diocesan of the province, and appointed a 
resident commissary to preside over the clergy. The doc- 
trines and rites of the Church of England were established 
by law, and that church embraced in its ranks almost 
every person of influence in the colony. After the Eng- 
lish Revolution, other opinions and practices began to 
arise, and spread so rapidly, that, at the war of independ- 
ence, two-thirds of the people were dissenters from the 
Episcopal Church. Slavery became more and more iden- 
tified with all the interests and institutions of the colony, 
and furnished one of the main subjects of colonial legis- 
lation. Literature was but slightly cultivated ; but the 
want of general intelligence was offset by considerable 
refinement of manners. Hospitality, from the first, was 
practised and enjoined ; and seldom have men been more 



CONDITION OF VIRGINIA. 59 

peculiarly attentive to this noble duty, than the inhabit- book it. 
ants of the Old Dominion. The life of the planter, how- ch. i. 
ever, inclined him to inhabits of indolence and leisure. ^ jy 
He lived isolated amid his dependants, ignorant of passing 1688. 
events, averse to labour, scornful of trade, jealous of his 
position, but chivalrous, frank, aflfable, and generous. His 
situation developed peculiar virtues and peculiar defects — 
quite foreign to those which characterized the Puritan 
settlers of New England, whose early planting and his- 
tory it is now necessary to consider. 




Emigration pf Mr. Hooker and his Company. 



CHAPTER II. 

SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. 

The more seriously we contemplate the struggles and book ii. 
:>rinciples of the Puritan settlers of New England, the ch. 2. 
-nore powerfully are we impressed with the greatness of ^ j^^ 
the men, and the greatness of their cause. They were 1592 
not adventurers in quest of wealth ; they were not broken- to 
down gentlemen of aristocratic tastes and connections, ^^^^• 
seeking to escape poverty and mortification in England; charao 
they were not dissolute young men, whom their friends the Pu- 
exiled to avoid disgrace and shame ; they were not pau- ^^^"^ 
pers, who fied their country to escape famine and disease, 
and who were willing to submit to a base dependence ; 
but they were religious, intelligent, independent men of 
the middle walks of life, who sought freedom to worship 
God, and scope for the full development of their energies. 
They were a class of religious enthusiasts, in whose eyes 
the present was nothing in comparison with the future, 
the material with the spiritual, or the ordinary pleasures 
of life with the duties enjoined upon the followers of an 
invisible King. They may have inclined to visionary 
views of truth, and doubtless had many social peculiari- 
ties which were repulsive and gloomy ; but they had those 
positive and exalted virtues which pre-eminently fitted 
them to lay the foundations of ultimate greatness and 
influence. Wherever we go in the United States, we see 
the influence of their example and principles — we see the 
6 (01) 



62 CHARACTER OF THE PURITANS 

Book n. effect of their laws, their colleges, their books, their no- 
Ch. 2. tions, and their habits. They may not hold in their 
^_ D. hands the balance of political power; but they furnish a 
1592 disproportionate share of the schoolmasters, the clergy, the 
^0 lawyers, the physicians, the authors, the editors, and the 
successful merchants, of every great city. Men whose in- 
Groat- fi^gjjce has been so good and so permanent, deserve our par- 
theeariy ticular noticc. Men who have ever been found arra^^ed in ^ 
ofxew <^Gfence of the great rights of mankind, and ready to make 
Eng- any sacrifice to secure them, merit our admiration. They 
have extorted it from the whole world; and no partisan- 
ship, no sectarianism, no prejudice, can take it away. 
They are immortal men. They would be objects of pane- 
gyric through all time, even if their principles no longer 
lived. 
Puriian It is unnecessary to give the history of Puritan conflicts 
in^Eng!^ in England, before America was contemplated as a new 
land. home. Difficulties first arose about some unessential form 
of religious worship, which the exiles to Geneva and 
Frankfort, during the reign of Mary, had adopted, through 
the influence of Calvin, and which they wished to estab- 
lish on their return to England, during the reign of Eli- 
zabeth. They were fii'st annoyed, and then persecuted, 
which led them to separate from the communion of the 
Established Church, and finally to seek the supremacy of 
their own forms. ' Controversy, contention and prosecu- 
tion, inflamed their hostility, not only to the Church, but 
also to the king. They became republicans, with new 
ideas of liberty. To these ideas they attached great im- 
portance, but were denied the peaceful ecjoyment of them. 
Some of the more enthusiastic of these men, seeing that 
there was not much prospect at home of securing what 
they so highly valued, from the opposition of the Court 
and the Church, resolved to emigrate to Holland where 



THE PURITANS. 63 

they heard there was liberty of conscience. Accordingly, book il 
in 1608, a party, under John Robinson, settled in Ley- Ch. 2. 
den. There, however, they were doomed to disappoint- j^ ^^ 
ment. They did not find scope for their energies, nor did 1608. 
they wish to sever all connection with their native land, settie- 
The new world afforded better prospects. They could not ^^°* ^ 
secure a charter from the king for a separate settlement ; 
but they obtained permission from the company to whom 
Virginia belonged, to occupy a part of that colony. Thi- Resoiu- 
ther they resolved to go. the pu- 

But Providence had other designs for them to accora- ^^^^^^ *° 

^ ^ settle in 

plish — even the colonization of a colder, more sterile, Ameri- 
more forbidding clime, where new perils should surround ^' 
the pilgrim, and where he could earn a subsistence only 
by constant toil and anxiety. It was in barren, stony, , 
stormy New England, that the great moral nursery of the 
land was to be planted, and the firmest foundations were 
to be laid for a powerful nation — laid, as usual, only by 
iron energy and heroic fortitude. It was only by such 
men that such a country could have been subdued. It 
was only such a country that could have developed the 
greatest strength and virtue. 

That country had been granted by King James to forty The Piy. 
gentlemen in the vicinity of Bristol, called the Plymouth ^^^^^, 
Company, to whom was given unlimited jurisdiction over ny. 
a belt of the whole American continent, extending from 
forty to forty-eight degrees of north latitude. Their pa- 
tent favoured a commercial monopoly of the most odious 
liind. Their sole object was a pecuniary return for their 
investments. 

Now, it was without the knowledge of this company, 
and without aid from the king, that the band of pilgrims 
established themselves in Massachusetts ; and it was even 
against their own intentions, for they expected to settle in 



64 THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 

Book n. the northern limits of that part of the country which was 
Ch. 2. claimed by the London company. 
^ -Q It has been already said that a party of the Pilgrims, 
1620. under Kobinson, first sought shelter in Holland. It was 
Voyage ^^ ^^'20 that they made preparations to emigrate to Ame- 
to Ame- rJca. A portion of them still remained behind ; but the 
youthful and the strong embarked at Delft-Haven for 
Southampton, and, two weeks after, on the fifth of Au- 
gust, re -embarked in two vessels for the new world. One 
of these vessels, the Speedwell, being unfit for the voyage, 
the company returned to Plymouth, and, on the sixth of 
September, went on board of a single vessel, the May- 
flower, and again set sail for their far-distant home. 
Never before was a leaky ship freighted with so precious 
, a cargo — not gold, not wares of iron and glass, not fabrics 
of silk and linen ; but men having the truth of God in 
their souls, and resolved to establish it in a new and 
boundless continent for the future glory and welfare of the 
human race. There were only one hundred pilgrims in 
the Mayflower; but they were the true founders of Ame- 
rican liberty and greatness. 
ArriToi The exiles steered their bark for the country near the 
Puri-^ Hudson. But not there were they to find a resting-place, 
tans on The bcautiful banks of that glorious river were reserved 
rican fo^' their descendants only in a future generation. As the 
chores, pilgnms approached the American shores, after a boiste- 
rous voyage of sixty-three days, they found themselves at 
the southern extremity of Cape Cod. It was near this 
barren headland that they expected to find the Hudson. 
Unable to proceed south, they moored their vessel in its 
harbour. But they did not prepare to land until they 
had formed themselves into a community for the preserv- 
ation of order, and the promotion of the public good. 
Thus early did they recognize the necessity of laws and 



LANDING OF THE PILGKIMS. bO 

government. They were religious, intelligent, and moral ; book ii. 
but even in the wilderness, with God for their Sovereign Ch. 2. 
Ruler, they felt that they required an earthly head. They a. d. 
accordingly chose John Carver for their governor; and 1620. 
all the men, forty-one in number, signed an instrument 
which constituted them a body politic. After spending 
five more tedious weeks in exploring the barren and deso- 
late coast, they selected the harbour of Plymouth as the Landing 
place of disembarkation ; and, on the eleventh of Decern- mouth, 
ber, 1620, (old style,) they trod upon the rock which has 
ever since been preserved and cherished as the most inte- 
resting vestige of the early settlement of New England. 

Thus, after tossing upon the ocean nearly five months, cisa* 
after leaving their temporary shelter in Holland, exposed Jj^^j^ 
to sickness, danger, and privation, did the pilgrim fathers^^efei the 
of New England land on a desolate and inhospitable coast, uists. 
five hundred miles from any other European colony, in the 
depth of winter, and with few preparations to meet its 
chilly storms. Between showers of sleet and snow, faint- 
ing with exhaustion, unused to labour, and suffering from 
disease, they erected a few rude huts to shelter them from 
the severities of the climate. And when the birds began 
to sing, in the opening spring of 1621, more than half 
their number had died. The health of the governor sank 
under his duties and privations, and, soon after, his wife, 
broken-hearted, followed him to a better land. 

In November, before the close of the season, the colony Famine 
was recruited in numbers, though not in stores. A ^"^^ 
scarcity, nearly amounting to a famine, followed. For 
three or four years, their chief dependence was on corn 
purchased from the Indians. At times they had no corn 
at all, and were compelled to subsist on fish. 

For three years the colonists lived together as a com- 
munity. But all the influences of religion, and all th« 
6* 



66 CONDITION or THE COLONISTS. 

^00^ i^- perilous and peculiar circumstances of their situation, 
Ch. 2. could not induce the lazy to work, or prevent the indus- 
A. D. trious from complaining. It was found absolutely neces- 
1621 sary that each family should take care of itself — should 
}9 plant its own corn, and provide for its own prosperity. 
This arrangement restored industry, and industry pro- 
duced contentment and abundance. Before many seasons. 
had elapsed, more corn was raised than could be consumed, 
and was profitably exchanged with the Indians for furs. 
Disease ^^ ^^^ Pilgrims suffered from cold, privation and dis- 
wnoog ease, they were mercifully preserved by Providence from 
diaiu. t^e tomahawk of the Indians, until they were able to 
contend with them. A fatal epidemic had carried off 
nearly all the natives in the vicinity of the settlement. 
A friendly Indian had even welcomed their approach, 
soon after they landed ; and he, with two others, intro- 
duced them to Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, with 
Treaty whom a treaty of peace was made. But the Pilgrims, 
Indians, notwithstanding the precariousness of their situation, their 
limited number, and their Christian principles, could not 
refrain from dipping their hands in the blood of a people 
whom, at all times, they should have conciliated. '' Oh I 
how happy a thing it would have been," said the pious 
Bobinson in Holland, in a letter to the colonists, " that 
you had converted some before you could have killed 
any V But Robinson was not capable, any more than 
we are, of appreciating all the circumstances of his flock 
in the wilderness ; and we may perhaps rest assured that 
the excellent Governor Bradford, and the brave Captain 
Standish, acted judiciously as well as courageously. 

Unobtrusive, unfettered, and trusting in the Lord for 
help, the colony at Plymouth slowly but steadily increased. 
At the end of ten years, it numbered three hundred souls. 
Feeble as it was in numbers, it had struck a deep root int© 



PROGRESS or THE COLONY. 67 

the American soil, and was a tree which Providence Book il 
planted for all generations. The colonists suffered much; Ch. 2. 
but their hopes were bright, and their courage undaunted, a, d. 
They were unmolested by the king, and existed as a pure 1621 
democracy. They appointed their own rulers, and rulers ^^ 
who governed in the fear of God. Their laws were salu- 
tary, and were based on the Bible. Township independ- ^^^.^^^^j 

, ence existed from the first, and this they succeeded in hard- 
perpetuating — at once the nursery and the genius of Ame- the^^ 
rican institutions. " Out of small beginnings," says the i°°y- 
early historian of the colony, *^ great things have been 
produced ; and as one small candle may light a thousand, 
so the light here kindled hath shone to many — yea, in 
some sort, to our whole nation.'' 

But all parts of New England were not settled by Grant to 
Puritans, or from religious considerations. The council "^^^^^qo^, 
of Plymouth, to whom the king had granted such im- gas. 
mense territories and undefined jurisdiction, issued gi-ants 
of domains to various persons, who were animated by the 
hopes of gain. In 1G21, the country between Salem and 
the Merrimac river became the property of John Mason. 
This grant was followed by another, the next year, to 
Mason and Sir Ferdinand Gorges, of the whole territory 
between the 3Ierrimac and Kennebec rivers, and extend- 
ing west as far as Canada. But it was not until 1623 
that any actual settlement was made; and this was made 
by fishermen, on the banks of the Piscataqua. Ports- 
mouth and Dover are among the earliest towns in the 
United States ; but they did not flourish like those estab- 
lished by the Puritans. Nor did the other settlements 

, which were attempted shortly after in various parts of the 
coast. They were mere fishing-stations, or else designed 
for traffic with the Indians, and have no historical 
importance. 



C8 COLONY OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 

Book h. The year 1628 is memorable for the formation of a 
Ch. 2. new company of Puritans for the settlement of the coun- 
A. D. *ry around Massachusetts Bay. The scheme originated 
1628. -with a clergyman of Dorchester, in the west of England, 
Forma- named White, who succeeded in instigating several gen- 
the'^M^s ^l^™^'^ 0^ consideration to engage in an active enterprise 
eaciiu- for the colonization of the new world with men of Puritan 
Bay^ principles. Among these were John Humphrey, brother 
Compar pf ^]^Q -^r^j-i Qf Lincoln ; Sir Henry Pioseville, Sir John 
Young, and John Endicott, who purchased of the Ply- 
mouth Company a belt of land extending from three miles 
south of Charles river to three miles north of every part 
of the Merrimac. They were soon joined by some wealthy 
citizens in and about London, including John Winthrop 
and Sir Richard Saltonstall ; and also by others from Lin- 
colnshire, of honourable connections, such as Isaac John- 
son, Thomas Dudley, Simon Bradstreet, "William Cod- 
dington, and Richard Bellingham — all famous in colonial 
annals. These gentlemen, sustained by money and influ- 
Rovai ential friends, obtained in 1629 a royal charter confirming 
charter. ^'^^ grant they had received from the Plymouth Company. 
The charter was modelled after that of the late Virginia 
Company, and contained nothing about religion ; nor was 
the settlement designed to be exclusively Puritan. The 
government was entrusted to the corporation in England, 
who had the exclusive right to enact laws, raise money, 
and settle all matters of importance. The executive ad- 
ministration of the colony, however, was entrusted to 
Endicott, assisted by twelve councillors, seven of whom 
were nominated by the company. 
They ob- The charter was granted by Charles I. in March ; and 
in the following April, six ships, with two hundred emi- 
grants, most of them Puritans, sailed for America. The 
new band of pilgrims brought their religious teachers with 



tain a 
cliarter 



ARRIVAL OF THE COLONISTS AT SALEM. 69 

them, and also such handicraftsmen as might prove most book it. 
useful, together with oxen, cows, and horses. No idea Ch. 2. 
of revisiting their native land ever entered their minds, a. d. 
They would not accumulate riches, and then return to 1630. 
enjoy them; but they would spend their days in the new charao 

world, and their children after them should toil in the ^'^^ °^ 

' the set- 

wilderness until the foundations of a great nation should tiers. 

be laid. 

It was in the latter part of June, the most cheering settie- 
and propitious season of the year, that the colonists ^g^°' 
arrived at their destined place, which was called Salem. 
Endicott, with two followers, had arrived the preceding 
year, but had erected only a few mean huts and planted 
a few insignificant cornfields. The thouo;hts of the set- 
tiers, even amid poverty and desolation, were still centred 
on those great ideas which so speedily gave vitality to 
their infant colon}", and which, in the mother country, 
were soon after destined to overturn the throne. The 
Puritan colonists became a church in the wilderness, with 
Grod for their sovereign ruler, and his word for their text- 
book and guide. They established religious worship on 
the basis of independency. Each congregation elected 
its officers, formed its creed, and subscribed to its cove- 
nant. The church of England was disowned and its 
ceremonials abandoned. The nearest human authority 
the Puritans followed was Calvin, and him only in matters 
of theology. His scheme of church government was not 
sufficiently democratic for those stern republicans. 

Before the year elapsed, a change was made in the -r^e 
government of the colony which had a wonderful effect compa- 
upon its future growth and condition. The corporation transfer 
in England voted to transfer their charter to the inhabi- 
tants of the colony themselves. A commercial corpora- 
tion thus became an independent provincial government. 



the char- 
ter. 



70 SUFFERINGS OF THE COLONISTS. 

Book h. In consequence of this transfer of power^ many more 
Ch. 2. persons of rank and property were induced to emigrate. 
A. D. I^ 1630, as many as fifteen hundred additional colonists 
1630. arrived, John Winthrop at their head, who had been 
Arrival choscn govcrnor by the board before its charter was 
°^ °^^ transferred. Boston was the place selected for the new 

emi- 

grants, plantation, and soon became the capital. Here was 
convened the General Court for the settlement of the 
government, composed of all the freemen of the colony. 
But power, for a while, was in the hands of a few men, 
who chose the magistrates from among themselves. 
Moreover, the elective franchise was narrowed to mem- 
bers of church. Gradually the inconvenience of assem- 
bling all the freemen together was felt, and representatives 
from each town were chosen to concert measures for public 
utility. 

Suffer- But before the colonists had modelled their new republic 

thf coio- ^^^y of their number had died of hardship and disease. 

nists. Provisions were scarce. Unforeseen obstacles discouraged 
even the hardy and the bold. Their ranks were not 
recruited, as had been hoped. " Men dreaded the hazards 
of the voyage and the wilderness, and wanted to learn the 
success of the first adventurers." Amid these discourage- 
ments the soul of Winthrop was serene and lofty. His 
great abilities were exerted for the welfare of his associates, 
and such was his wisdom and influence, that the clouds, 
after two or three years of hardship, began to break 
away. In 1633, two hundred emigrants arrived, among 
whom were Haynes, Cotton, and Hooker; men of learning 
and social position at home, and with whose labours is 
associated all that is famous in the early history of the 
colonies. 

Winthrop's administration lasted four years, during 
which seven churches were organized, ferries were estab- 



SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. 71 

lished, a fort was erected in Boston, water-mills and wind- Book n. 
mills set up, two ships were built, a trade in corn and Ch. 2. 
cattle begun with Virginia, the country around was a. d. 
explored, salutary laws were enacted, a representative 1633. 
system of government formed, and liberty based on a 
sound foundation. The churches, especially, became the 
admiration of the Puritans in England, and the colony 
was regarded as the home of oppression and the hope of 
future generations. But all amusements were proscribed, 
and a rigid censorship of manners and morals established, 
which ended in a social despotism, from which New 
England is not yet entirely emancipated. 

Notwithstanding the excellent character and wise unpopu- 
government of Winthrop, he was not safl&ciently demo- ^^^.^^^ °^ 
cratic in his sympathies to suit the new settlers of Massa- throp. 
chusetts. When the charter was given, it was supposed 
that the freemen, or those to whom it was originally 
granted, would be so few that all might join in making 
laws J but when the freemen embraced the colonists them- 
selves, the governor thought that their representatives 1634. 
only should legislate for the public good. As this doc- suo- 

trine was not relished by the people, Winthrop lost his ^®^^®'* 

■^ bv Dud- 

election, May 1634, and Thomas Dudley succeeded him ley. 

as governor. 

Haynes succeeded Dudley the following year — marked 1636. 

by the emigration of sixty of the colonists to the banks jj 

of the Connecticut. Early in the spring of 1636, and his 

Hooker, " the light of the western churches," followed, ^^Zi- 

with a company of one hundred men, driving before them, ^'^^^ ^° 

through tangled woods, across swamps and morasses, and ford. 

over streams and highlands, their cattle, which were to 

furnish them subsistence in their toilsome pilgrimage and 

in their future resting-place. They selected Hartford as 

their home, little dreaming of the danger which sur- 



72 ROGER WILLIAMS. 

Book n. rounded them, and the evils they were soon to encounter 
Ch. 2. from the hostility of the Pequod Indians. 
A. D. While these enterprising pilgrims were organizing the 
1631. new State of Connecticut, a domestic event occurred in 
Charao- Massachusetts which has furnished the enemies of the 
Roger Puritans with lasting materials for slander and reproach, 
^i^ This was the banishment of Roger Williams. This great 
man had arrived in the country in 1631, and was himself 
a Puritan and a fugitive from English persecution. He 
was, doubtless, beyond his brethren in liberality of mind, 
and advocated unbounded religious toleration. He de- 
fended the great principle that the civil magistrate had no 
right to restrain or direct the consciences of men. But 
with these views, altogether in advance of his age, he 
also insisted that it was not lawful to take an oath to the 
civil magistrate ; that it was not right for Christians to 
join in family prayer with those whom they judged 
unregenerate, and that all colonial patents were invalid, 
since King Charles had no lawful power to dispose of the 
territory of the Indians. He advocated his opinions with 
great zeal, and mingled, as Graham asserts, much evil 
with good, and much error with truth. His notions, 
His per- whether false or true in the abstract, were considered as 
y,J^_' hostile to the constitution of civil society, and unsuitable 
to the scene of their promulgation. He was accordingly 
looked upon with distrust, although his piety was above 
reproach, and his genius beyond ordinary appreciation. 
But his views found admirers in Salem, and he was invited 
by the members of the church in that place to become 
their religious guide, much to the scandal of the good 
people in Boston. There he instigated Endicott, a magis- 
trate, to cut the red cross out of the royal standard, since 
it seemed to be an emblem of Papal superstition. This 
act of apparent treason was followed by penalties which 



BANISHMENT OF WILLIAMS. 73 

led to more open dissension, and which finally ended in Book ii. 
the refusal of Williams to subject himself to the censure Ch. 2. 
or control of the colonial churches. He firmly main- 1635. 
tained his right to hold what opinions he pleased, in spite j^^^^^^, 
of the entreaties of Hooker and Cotton, and the displea- "lent of 
sure of the General Court, before which he was sum- -^vii. 



moned. His threat of schism filled up the measure of his ^^'^^ , 

■^ and set- 

offences, and he was accordingly sentenced by the court, ticmout 

October 1635, to depart from the jurisdiction of the inland/ 
colony. The sentence excited great uproar in Salem, 
and his silent admirers resolved to follow him into exile. 
He obtained permission to remain till spring, but such 
was the effect of his discourses that it was resolved to 
send him back to England in the depth of winter. The 
warrant was made out, but before it could be served he 
and his companions had fled. After wandering fourteen 
weeks in the wilderness, amid perils and hardships, without 
guide and without friends, except so far as he was shel- 
tered and fed by the native chieftains, he established an 
infant settlement at the head of Narragansett Bay, at a 
place which he called Providence. From Canonicus, the 
head sachem of the Narragansett Indians, he subsequently 
obtained a title to the territory he had occupied. This 
was the commencement of the colony of Rhode Island. 
Here Roger Williams founded a State on the principle of 
pure democracy ; giving to all unbounded liberty of con- 
science, making friends of the Indians, labouring for their 
conversion, recommending the great ideas of toleration in 
language more genial and beneficent than had at first 
characterized him, and securing to the end of his life 
universal respect, not only from his own people, but finally 
from those who had persecuted and exiled him. 

The next groat event of importance in the early history 
of the New England colonies was the arrival, in 1635, of 
7 



74 SIR HENRY VANE. 

Book n. three thousand additional emigrants, -whom the cruelties of 

Ch.2. Laud and Strafford, the ministei-s of Charles I., drove 

1636. ^^ ^^^ shores of the New World. Among these were 

j.^_ Hugh Peters, the celebrated chaplain, in after times, of 

created Oliver Cromwcll, and Henry — afterwards Sir Henry — 

tioET*" Vane, so eminent in the parliamentary history of Great 

Britain. He was then young, enthusiastic, and fearless ; 

deeply attached to Puritan principles, and possessing one 

of the finest minds in that age of great men and great 

Henry idcas. His influence was soon felt, and in 1636 he was 

Vane go- elected governor of the province. But polities did not 

vernor ^ ° ^ .... 

of Mas- furnish a field wide enough for his active spirit, and he 

set^ts!^" plunged into the abyss of theological discussion. His 

opinions, though sound on the whole, were, however, so 

tinged with enthusiasm and extravagance, that he soon 

lost most of the popularity he had gained by his urbanity 

Ana and genius. He gave the most offence by his patronage 

Hutch- ^£ ^^^ Hutchinson ; a woman of great chai*acter and 

talent, but who advocated doctrines which were supposed 

to be dangerous and heretical. 

This celebrated woman raised a spirit of insuiToction 
Her per- against spiritual authority. She submitted with impa- 
eJd^p^ tience to the restrictions imposed on women in religious 
mona. meetings, and established separate female assemblages, 
where she revealed her views of truth to admiring listeners. 
They were substantially those of George Fox : that the spirit 
of God communicates truth independently of his written 
word. The clergy denounced her doctrines as heretical, 
and she and her friends retorted in bitter and censorious 
reproaches. The venom of religious discussion was in- 
stilled into the innermost recesses of society, and its peace 
seriously compromised. The great majority, however, 
were opposed to her, and she and her most zealous adhe- 
rents were banished. The people again rallied under 



PEQUOD WAR. 75 

Wintbrop, who was chosen governor in place of Vane book u. 
in 1637. Vane himself returned to England in disgust. Ch. 2. 
The female agitator whom he had befriended sought, with a. d. 
her adherents, shelter in Rhode Island — long the home 1637. 
of the oppressed. Not contented there, neither anywhere, 
she removed to one of the Dutch settlements, and was 
finally murdered by the Indians. Her brother, John 
Wheelright, an able minister, with his friends, removed 
to the banks of the Piscataqua and founded the town of 
Exeter. 

It was in the midst of the dissensions occasioned by the Pequod 
discussions of Ann Hutchinson, that the Pequod war ^"' 
broke out. This tribe, the most considerable in New 
England, mustering seven hundred warriors, viewed with 
jealousy and alarm the encroachments of the English, 
especially their migration to the valley of the Connecticut. 
Where there is secret hostility, a small provocation is 
enough to produce a war. An Indian trader, named Old- Ravasea 
ham, was murdered by a band of Pequods on Block Isl- ^^*^*^ 

mi Indians. 

and, and his pinnace seized. The pmnace was retalicn, 
and eleven Indians were killed. But this retaliation did 
not satisfy the new settlers of Massachusetts. They de- 
manded satisfaction for the murder of one Captain Stone, 
a dissolute master of a trading-vessel to Virginia, who had 
been killed in 1636, with seven of his crew. The Pe- 
quods refused the demands of Endicott, who had been 
sent out against them with ninety men, and who retaliated 
by burning some of their villages. The Indians, in 
revenge, destroyed, in the course of the winter, thirty of 
the new settlers on the banks of the Connecticut. A 
special session of the General Court of Massachusetts was 
called, the militia was organized, and preparations made 
to raise troops for approaching hostilities. 

But the Connecticut settlers had made vigorous exer- 



76 DESTRUCTION OF THE PEQUODS. 

Book II. tions. They formed an alliance with the Mohegans and 
Ch. 2. the Narragansetts, and marched, with nearly all the force 
A. D. they could raise, against the Pequod warriors. The colo- 
1636. nists were commanded by John Mason, a man of military 
Attack experience, assisted by Captain Underbill, with twenty 
of the jj^gQ fj,Q^ Massachusetts. The Indians were entrenched, 
quods, in great numbers and considerable strength, upon a hill ; 
and, feeling secure, had abandoned themselves to feasting 
and revelry. But in their fancied security, before day, 
when overcome with sleep, they were unexpectedly at- 
tacked, and their fort was fired. So successful was tho 
assault, that six hundred of the Pequods perished, many 
of them by fii-e, while only two of the English were 
killed. 
Their ' As morning dawned, three hundred more Indians were 
^°^' seen to advance from another fort. But these were easily 
etruo defeated. What could undisciplined savages, with only 
^^^^' bows and arrows, do when opposed by Europeans, equipped 
with fire-arms ? The scattered warriors of the great Pe- 
quod tribe retired to their forests and morasses, but they 
were pursued and hunted like wild beasts. Their wig- 
wams were burned, and every trace of their settlements 
destroyed. The few who survived surrendered in des- 
pair, and were either doomed to slavery, or incorporated 
with the Mohegans and Narragan setts. 
Effect of ^^^^ successful termination of this first Indian war 
the Tvar. struck terror into the hearts of the Bed men, and secured 
a long interval of peace and prosperity. It was doubtless 
attended with severities which it is hard to reconcile with 
Christian magnanimity. Yet it can scarcely be doubted 
that a rigorous policy was wise, and peculiarly demanded 
by the circumstances of the times. Had not the Pequods 
been destroyed, it is probable that dangerous conspiracies 
and combinations would have been formed with other 



PROSPERITY OF MASSACHUSETTS. 77 

jealous and hostile tribes, and a long contest ensued, book n. 
which would have sapped the energies and damped the Ch. 2. 
ardour of the colonists. Results, at least, prove the wis- ^^ j)^ 
dom of the course, since no serious war again occurred 1637. 
for nearly forty years. 

Charles I., engrossed by his troubles with Parliament, Prospe- 
had not much leisure or inclination to interfere with the the coio- 
affairs of the colonies; and Massachusetts silently ad- '^^• 
vanced, and had scope to organize its social institutions 
on a firm basis. The good people of the colony turned 
their attention to the establishment of a system of educa- 
tion, to the conversion of the Indians, to the settlement 
of controverted points of faith, and to the exclusion of 
offensive sectarians from their midst. This period is 
memorable, therefore, for the founding of Harvard Col- 
lege, for the labours of Eliot among the Indians, and 
for the Cambridge platform, which limited political power 
to church members alone, as well as established a theolo- 
gical creed which was essentially similar to that framed 
by the famous council of divines at Westminster. 

Winthrop and Dudley, distinguished as governors of Death of 
the infant settlement, died within three years of each ^j^^p^ 
other, and just before the ascendency of Cromwell. Their 
authority devolved on Endicott, who was re-elected to 
oflBoe, with the exception of a single term, for fourteen 
successive years. During his long administration, Mas- 
sachusetts had still greater scope for establishing the prin- 
ciples of self-government. Cromwell favoured the Puri- Growth 
tan settlers, and allowed them to manage their own affairs, ^jony 
la the course of this period, the cleroy exercised great during 

, • ■• 1 • 11 1 T . 1 T • /. the time 

authority, and took part in all the poutical discussions of of Crom- 
the day. It was also during this period that those dis- ^^^' 
graceful persecutions of the Quakers commenced, which, to 
this day, have furnished a fruitful subject of reproach to 



78 NEW ENGLAND UNDER CHARLES IL 

Book IL all who hate the principles and revile the memories of the 

Ch. 2. Pilgrim Fathers. As a separate chapter will be devoted 

A. D, to the history of religious persecutions and dissensions, no 

1640 further notice need now be taken of the crusade against 

**^ the followers of Fox — a crusade, however, in which they 

-I onf\ ' ' " 

alone did not embark, either in America or in England. 
Progress ^^ *^^ restoration of Charles II., in 1660, the spirit of 
of the CO- Puritanism began to decline, in America as well as in the 
country which gave it birth. New ideas and new habits 
arose, not so favoui-able to religious growth or moral ele- 
vation of sentiment. With the decline of the primitive 
grandeur of the Puritan character, also passed away many 
of the asperities which unfortunately had marred its 
beauty. The people became more prosperous, from the 
absence of external dangers, from habits of industry and 
severe morality, and from unbounded scope in self-govern- 
ment. But prosperity, while it caused the wilderness to 
rejoice, and added to the resources, numbers, and wealth 
of the colony, dried up some of the springs of spiritual 
life, and unloosed some of the ties which had bound the 
hearts of all together in one harmonious bond of union. 
Their Morcover, we now begin to observe the influence of com- 
with'*^*^ mercial restrictions which the mother country imposed, 
royal go- and which were unfavourable to all interests but those of 

Vernors. . r\ • • i i 

agriculture. Opposition to royal governors, and contests 
for freedom, also commenced, and were continued until 
the people were prepared for their great revolutionary 
struggle. But these will not here be traced, and allusion 
will only be made to those general events, not of sufficient 
importance for separate chapters, which took place until 
the accession of William and Mary to the throne of the 
Stuarts. 

Charles II. was not proclaimed in Boston until 1661, 
when the colony sent Bradstreet apd Norton to England 



DEMANDS OF CHARLES IT. 79 

as agents to secure the favour of the monarch, and a con- book it. 
tinuance of its privileges. The king confirmed the char- cb. 2. 
ter, and promised oblivion for all past ofifences ; but de- ^ ^^ 
manded the toleration of the Church of England, the 16C2. 
repeal of the law which confined the elective franchise to 
members of the Church, and, finally, the admission of all 
persons of honest lives to the sacraments of baptism and 
the Lord's Supper. Though there was a strong party in 
fiivour of the royal demands, the majority was still inclined 
to support the theocratic system. An intermediate party The 
had, however, grown up, which advocated moderate mea- ^^^^^^^^^ 
sures, among which were Bradstreet, Norton, and Increase nant. 
Mather. This party had supported the " half-way cove- 
nant," by which the children of church members received 
the spiritual benefits of baptism, and the civil privileges 
of church membership. 

In 1662, the colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut chartorg 
obtained liberal charters from Charles II., which gave to F"Jl^'''} 

' o to Rhode 

the freemen the right of choosing their governors, magis- island 
trates, and representatives, with judicial and legislative necticul' 
authority. And it is a matter of surprise that such pri- 
vileges should have been conceded by a prince of the 
house of Stuart. But the inconvenience of such inde- 
pendent governments had not then been experienced. In Their 
Rhode Island, the privileges of freemen were restricted ^5°^** 

' . sions. 

to freeholders and their eldest sons. The qualifications 
required by the charter of Connecticut were, property to 
the amount of twenty pounds, and " civil, peaceable, and 
honest conversation." New Haven, at first, was unwilling 
to accede to the charter, inasmuch as it inclined, like 
Massachusetts, to a spiritual rather than a property quali- 
fication ; but the fear of being absorbed in the colony of 
New York, and the judicious conduct of some of its pro- 
minent men, led to the consolidation of the colony in 



?0 ENCROACnMENTS OF CHARLES. 

Book u. 1667, wliicli then contained four counties — Xew Haven, 
ch. 2. Hartford, Middlesex, and New London. Of the new 
A. D. consolidated colony of Connecticut, John Winthrop, a 

166-4. man of great experience and wisdom, was chosen governor, 
and held that post for fourteen years. 

Rpj-jQ In 1664, various complaints having been made in Eng- 

commis- jj^^^ against the colony, the kino; resolved to send out 

sioners * . *" . , *^ _, . 

sent to commissioners to examme mto its amiirs, and settle con- 
^uSts flicting claims and interests. Massachusetts remonstrated 
to in- against their appointment and powers, and its magistrates 
into its treated them in a manner which soon led to bitter alter- 
^^*' cations. The commissioners, unable to come to an under- 
standing, proposed at length to sit in form. The General 
Court prohibited this procedure as contrary to the charter, 
and invasive of the liberties which it guarantied. The 
commissioners, without a military force, wore obliged to 
yield, but complained of ill-treatment, and threatened the 
king's displeasure. They moreover outraged the social 
habits of the people by convivial pleasures on Saturday 
evenings, which led to still greater mutual animosity. 
But they were sustained by the royal government, and 
Massachusetts was required to send five men to England, 
to answer for its conduct. Th'e demand, of course, excited 
no little alarm. The General Court was convened, which 
voted to send an address to his Majesty, and made great 
professions of loyalty, but neglected to obey the royal 
command. As Charles, at this time, was hard pressed by 
domestic difficulties, the disobedience of the colony went 
for a while unnoticed and unpunished. 
Il^y^ And the colonists themselves were soon diverted from 
King distant, to immediate and more pressing dangers. In 
Philip's iQ-j^^ (Ijg jjjQst disastrous and desperate contest with the 
aborigines which ever afflicted the Puritan settlers of New 
England, broke out ; and the struggle was not ended until a 



ENC.LISII COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS. 81 

teutli of all the houses in the colony were burned, a mil- book it. 
lion of dollars expended, and six hundred people had Ch. 2. 
perished, — to say nothing of the still greater misfortunes j^^ jy 
which befell their savage enemies. This was the famous 1675. 
war against the Narragansetts, in which King Philip 
figured as the most intrepid of the Indian heroes. But 
this disastrous contest will be further presented in the 
chapter on Indian wars. 

Soon after the termination of Indian hostilities, 1677, 
the produce of 3Iaine, which had been granted to Gorges 
and Mason, was purchased by Massachusetts for 1200/., 
and added to its jurisdiction, which naturally drew the 
attention of the Euo;lish government once more to the 
colony. 

The English merchants and manufacturers made loud English 
complaints of Massachusetts for its disro^^ard of the laws "*'-''" 

^ , *= chants 

of trade. The Committee on Plantations, to whom these com- 
complaints were referred, suggested ^' a governor wholly Ji^^*^ 
supported by his Majesty.'^ Randolph, a kinsman of i^ny. 
Mason, was sent over to Boston, IGSO, with a commission 
as collector of the customs of New England, and he made a 
vigorous attempt to exercise his office, but the whole popu- 
lation was against him. Perplexed and involved in law- 
suits, he returned to England ; but soon came back with 
a royal letter ivhich demanded the immediate appointment 
of agents empowered to consent to a modification of the 
charter. 

The colonists dared not disobey a direct ro3\al command, 1682. 
and proceeded to the appointment of agents ; but author- ^^f ^^"Jj, 
ized them, 168*2, merely to lay certain concessions before the 
the king. Charles threatened a writ of quo warranto, ^°°' 
unless they were furnished with more ample powers. The 
General Court accordingly authorized its agents to make 
any concessions consistent with the charter. This of 



82 TYRANNY OF SIR EDMUND ANDROS. 

Book u. course did not satisfy an arbitrary royal government, and 
Ch. 2. the writ was accordingly issued. The people refused to 
^ jy surrender the charter ; but it was nevertheless declared to 
1684. be forfeited by the English courts of law, and the barrier 
fell, 1684, between the people of Massachusetts, and the 
Dissatis- will of the English King. Soon after Charles II. died, 
^^^^^^ and was succeeded by James II., whose inflexible temper 
colony, and tyrannical principles were fully known, and were soon 
verified by the appointment of a special commission for 
the government of the New England colonies. Against 
this government the General Court of Massachusetts pro- 
tested, while it obeyed its directions. But the rule of the 
royal commissioners was mild and conciliatory, in compa- 
rison with that of the governor whom James soon after 
Andres scut over to Supersede them. This agent of royal tyranny 
^'0?^' ^^^ ^"^ Edmund Andres, who was empowered, with the 
New consent of a board of councillors named by the king, to 
* make ordinances for the colonies, and raise taxes for their 
support. 

The whole legislative and executive authority was now 
in the hands of persons appointed by the king, not merely 
in violation of the original charter of the colonies, but of 
His dis- the fundamental laws of England. Andros, on his arrival 
^^^?^^t ^* Boston, caused the Episcopal service to be performed 
in the old South church ; he abolished the General 
Court; he refused to permit the solemnization of mar- 
riage, except by clergymen of the Church of England ; 
he increased the fees of all public olBBcers ; he attempted 
to take away the charters of Rhode Island and Connecti- 
cut, and abolished the regular governments of those pro- 
vinces ; he prohibited town meetings for the election of 
town officers; he questioned the validity of titles, and issued 
new grants of property, — in short, he compelled the people 
to submit to grievous extortion and gross injustice. 



ACCESSION OF WILLIAM AND MARY. 83 

At length, the smothered rage of the people broke book ti. 
forth. As soon as the tidings of the deposition of James Oh. 2. 
II. reached Boston, a general insurrection of all classes a. p, 
took place. The governor and all obnoxious persons were 1688. 
seized, a committee of safety appointed, the old magis- insur- 
trates were reinstated, and liberty was restored. The '■action, 
other colonies followed the example of Massachusetts. 
The charter of Connecticut reappeared from its conceal- 
ment in the old oak-tree. Rhode Island acted as if its 
own had never been relinquished. New Hampshire re- 
annexed itself to Massachusetts, and all things returned 
to the state they had been in prior to the death of 
Charles II. 

William and Mary were proclaimed in Boston with the Libci-ty 
same enthusiasm that they were in Virginia; and consti- Endand 
tutional liberty received a confirmation from the English respect- 
Parliament — henceforth, in reality, the supreme power in 
England, as, heretofore, it had been in theory. 

But the accession of William and Mary involved the Prospe- 
English nation in wars, which also affected the condition JhJ,JJ)io. 
and welfare of the colonies. Before the effect of these '^i^^- 
v/ars can be traced, as well as sundry other matters of 
importance, the settlement of other colonies demands our 
attention. We take leave of the New England settle- 
ments when their institutions were established upon a 
permanent basis, when the population had extended for 
more than one hundred miles into the interior, and when 
they began to claim, from their inherent importance, the 
attention of the Engliah nation. 




Laniing of Henry Hudson. 



81 



CHAPTER III. 

SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 

Holland, in tlie seventeenth century, was tlie most book il 
prosperous commercial State in Europe, and was not ch. 3. 
indifferent to the great possessions which the English, ^ ^^ 
Portuguese, and Spaniards, claimed in the newlj-disco- 1609. 
vcred sections both of the eastern and western continents, j^^^^j^ 
Accordingly, a powerful corporation was formed in 1609, East in- 
called the Dutch East India Company, which succeeded pany. 
in sharing with the Portuguese the lucrative commerce 
of India and the oriental islands. Under the auspices of 
this company of merchants, the Hudson river was disco- 
vered and explored, and the Dutch flag hoisted on the 
island of Manhattan, where New York now stands. In 
1 01 3, a few huts were erected on the island for traflSc 
with the Indians, and, two years after, a fort was built at 
Albany, then called Fort Orange. The whole country, 
from the fortieth to the forty-fifth degree of latitude, was 
claimed by the Dutch, and called New Netherlands. 

In 1621, the Dutch West India Company was formed, 1621. 
with the exclusive privilege of trade and settlement on Dutch 
both coasts of America. The little province of New jiaCom- 
Nctherlands fell under the control of this new corporation, p^ny. 
and its actual settlement was contemplated. 

In 1623, two vessels with colonists were sent out from 
Amsterdam, which entered Delaware Bay, and ascended 
the river nearly as far as Philadelphia. Here Fort Nassau 

8 (86) 



86 SCHEMES OF COLONIZATION. 

Book IT. was built, and a settlement commenced. In 1624, Peter 
ch. 3. Minnick was sent out as governor of the colony, and 
A, D. brought over with him some French Protestants, who 
1624. were in reality the first settled inhabitants of the New 
Settle- Netherlands. They occupied the north-west corner of 
ment of j^^^g Island. Shortly after, the island of Manhattan was 
York purchased of the Indians for about twenty-four dollars, 
city be- ^^^ ^ block-house erected at its southern extremity, which 
was called Fort Amsterdam. Around this fort a little 
village was formed, which gradually extended until it has 
become the greatest city on the American continent, and 
the metropolis of commerce, rivalling European capitals 
in size, magnificence, wealth, and population. 
1629. But the colony of the New Netherlands, after all, was 
New little more than a small population of Indian traders, 
ofcow ^"til t^G year 1629, when a more extensive scheme of 
zation. colonization was projected in Holland, and ratified by the 
States-General. This was, that any member of the com- 
pany who might establish, in any part of the New Nether- 
lands, a colony of fifty persons upwards of fifteen years 
of age, should become absolute proprietor of a territory 
sixteen miles in extent, along the sea-shore or a navigable 
river, or eight miles when both banks were occupied, with 
an indefinite extent inward. He was to reign like a feu- 
The Pa- dal lord, under the title of Patroon ; but the settlers were 
troons. allowed as much land as they could cultivate, and freedom 
from taxation for ten years. It was also stipulated that 
the lands should be first purchased from the Indians, as 
the lawful and original proprietors of the soil. The com- 
pany at home, under whose auspices the colony was to be 
planted, exhibited the usual narrowness of commercial 
corporations in that age. It looked to the profit of its 
members, rather than the welfare of the settlement. 
Hence, it imposed odious restrictions. The colonists were 



GOVERNOR VAN T^YILLER. 87 

forbidden to make woollen, linen, or cotton cloth, and the book ii. 
island of Manhattan was reserved to the company for Ch. 3. 
purposes of trade with the Indians. A. d. 

In accordance with this scheme of colonization, some 1633. 
of the most inviting tracts of country on the Hudson settiera 
river, Long Island, and Delaware Bay, were secured by jj^*^^ 
enterprising members of the company. But the Patroons 
did little more than was necessary to secure their grants. 
The colony belonging to Van Ilensselaer, near Albany, 
was the most thriving, Indian trade was the great object 
desired, rather than agricultural improvement. At Fort 
Amsterdam, more serious efforts at colonization were 
attempted under Van Twiller, who had succeeded Miunick 
as director or governor in 1633. 

Still, the province was not flourishing. Difficulties Bad ma- 
arose between the e;overnment and the Patroons. The "'^"^ 

^ ruent of 

English laid claim to a part of the territory granted to the co- 
the company, and established themselves on the banks of ^^^^' 
the Connecticut. The governor appropriated some of the 
finest sections of the country for his own domain, and was 
accused of extravagance and negligence. A Swedish 
colony settled on the banks of the Delaware. Rival 
claims, bad management, and commercial restrictions, 
were fatal to the prosperity of the colonists, who, besides, 
were not animated by any lofty religious principles. In 
1638, when William Kieft succeeded Van Twiller, Man- 1638. 
hattan Island was nearly deserted. In addition to other Kieft 
evils, the Indians commenced a savage warfare, which ^^^ ^ 
lasted for two jears, to which they were provoked by the '^^^^^i^®^- 
Dutch themselves. The governor, Kieft, had foolishly 
and wickedly ordered a massacre in retaliation for a mur- 
der which an injured Indian had committed. 

It was not till 1617 that a better day dawned upon the 
New Netherlands, under the government of Stuyvesant 



88 WISE ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. 

Book II. — a Scholar, a soldier, and a gentleman. This enlight- 

Ch. 3. ened governor pursued a mild course towards the Indians ; 

A. D. and the Dutch West India Company, learning wisdom 

1647. from experience, removed the restrictions upon commerce. 

Prospe- The boundary between Connecticut and the New Nether- 

thJco^ lai^^^s was amicably settled. Municipal privileges were 

lony. obtained by the inhabitants. The stream of immigration 

began to swell. Fugitives from New England, France, 

Bohemia, Switzerland, and Italy, sought shelter in New 

Amsterdam, which, in 1656, had become a cosmopolitan 

city. Amicable relations were maintained with Virginia 

Swedish and the other colonies, with the exception of New Sweden 

CO ony. — ^ colony which had been planned by Gustavus Adol- 

phus, and planted under the auspices of the celebrated 

Oxenstiern, on the southern shores of Delaware Bay. 

Rivalship provoked enmity, and enmity led to hostilities. 

The only colony which Sweden had planted in the new 

world fell, in 1655, under the jurisdiction of the Dutch, 

after a feeble existence of seventeen years. 

Claims But, though Ncw Amsterdam was destined to become 

eV^'hIii ^ gi'^a*^ city, and was already the home of the oppressed, 

to New and the chosen abode of merchants, yet its government 

dam. aiid possession were to pass away from the Dutch. Not 

they, but the English, were to be the sovereign lords of 

the Atlantic coast, from Canada to Florida, until their 

descendants should call themselves by a new name, and 

cut asunder the ties which bound them to the fatherland. 

The English had always laid claim to the territories 

occupied by the Dutch, on the ground that they belonged 

to Virginia ; but the civil wars and other difficulties with 

which the government had to contend, prevented the 

enforcement of the claim. The Dutch were quietly 

allowed to continue their settlements, without, however, 

any recognition of their rights by England, which was 



CLAIMS OF THE ENGLISH TO AMSTERDAM. 81) 

jealous of the commercial prosperity of Holland. A war book ii. 
between these two great Protestant countries was the ch. 2. 
result, even under the dictatorship of Cromwell. The 1664. 
Protector meditated the conquest of the New Netherlands, 
and the design was revived by his son Richard ; but it 
was not until the restoration of Charles II. that the seiz- 
ure of the Dutch possessions in North America was 
actually made. 

Charles II., in defiance of the charter rights of Connec- charies 
ticut, as well as the superior claims of the Netherlands, ^- ''■^-'^^^^ 
granted to his brother, the Duke of York, in 1664, the Amstcr- 
whole country from the Connecticut Kiver to the shores J^ ^° 
of the Delaware, as well as the tract between the Kenne- i>"i^« «f 
bee and St. Croix ; and Sir Richard Nichols was sent to 
America with three ships and six hundred soldiers to 
secure the grant. 

The Dutch colony at Manhattan was in no condition to English 
resist the English. The company at home had refused *^^':t'°^* 

& L J session. 

before to furnish means of defence against the encroach- 
ments of Connecticut. The colonists themselves were 
lukewarm, and many were secretly friendly to the in- 
vaders; since more liberty was enjoyed in the New Eng- 
land colonies than among themselves. The people would 
not expose their lives for a company who neglected their 
interests ; therefore New Netherland fell into the hands 
of the invaders, and its name was changed to New York 
in honour of the royal proprietor, September 1664. 

But liberal terms were granted by the conquerors. Con- 
Free direct intercourse v/ith Holland was permitted for a )J^"'^'^ "^ 
while, and the Dutch settlers were promised security to AtH.-^ter- 

, • . ,. . , . • 1 1 dam liv 

their customs, possessions, religion, and municipal regula- the F.ug. 
tions. The conquest of the capital was followed by the ^^^^'' 
surrender of Albany, and a general submission of tht 
whole province to English rule was acknowledged by the 

8* 



90 DISMEMBERMENT OP THE PROVINCE. 

Book u. beginning of October. Colonel Nichols was appointed 
Ch. 3. governor, and faithfully discharged his duties until the 
1670. province was reconquered by the Dutch, 1667. 

Thus, by an act of '^flagrant injustice and insolent 
usurpation," was overthrown the Dutch dominion in North 
America, and the rule of England established on the 
Atlantic coast from Acadia to Florida. The Dutch West 
India Company had the meanness to express dissatisfac- 
tion with that brave old governor, who had secured more 
favourable terms than a capitulating city had perhaps ever 
before obtained. But the venerable Stuyvesant still ad- 
hered to the wreck of the institutions and community over 
which he had faithfully and ably presided for seventeen 
years. He did not return to Holland, but remained at 
New York ; where, for a year longer, " he prolouged the 
empire of Dutch manners and the respect of the Dutch 
name.^' 
Dismem- The conquest of New York resulted in a dismember- 
^'2T^ ment of the province. The Duke of York, two months 
pro- even before the conquest, assigned to Lord Berkeley and 
yince. g.^ George Carteret the land between the Hudson and 
the Delaware; which, in honour of the latter, who had 
been governor of Jersey, received the name of New 
Jersey. 

The proprietors of the province offered terms nearly simi- 
lar to those which had led to the settlement of Virginia, 
Fifty acres of land were offered to each member of a settler's 
family, and the same amount for each slave or servant, at 
FhOip a quit-rent of half a penny per acre. A governor and 
govern- couucil, appointed by the proprietaries, administered to 
^^ °^ local affairs. Philip Carteret was the first governor, and 

New ^ ° 

York. Elizabethtown was the first settlement. 

No difficulties occurred, and no mattei of importance 
took place until 1670, when the time cair e to 'collect the 



NEW JERSEY RECOVERED BY THE DUTCH. 91 

quit-rents, against the payment of which the whole colony book ii, 
combined; and so powerful was the resistance of the Ch. s. 
people, that the governor returned to England. 1674= 

Three years afterwards New Jersey was recovered by j^^^^jg^.. 
the Dutch, as well as New York, at a period when De sey and 
Ruyter and Von Tromp, those gallant admirals, sustained y^j.,^ ^.^ 
the honour of their flag against the naval armaments of conquer- 
England. But, after holding possession fifteen months, 
the Dutch, by the treaty of London, 1674, were com- 
pelled to restore their conquests, and New Jersey and 
New York again fell into possession of the English. 

The Duke of York obtained from his brother Charles New p* 
a new patent for both New York and New Jersey imme- **^"* , , 

■•■ *^ granted 

diately after, and Major Edmund Andros, the same person to the 
who subsequently oppressed the people of New England, york. 
was sent out to govern the united province, where he dis- 
tinguished himself by the same tyrannical acts which after- 
wards made his memory detested in New England. 

In the mean time, however. Sir William Berkeley sold 
his share of New Jersey, which had reverted to the pro- 
prietors, to two Quakers, for 1000/. The followers of 
Fox, having grown more quiet and anxious for repose, 
looked towards America as a shelter against oppression 
and scorn. 

One of the new Quaker proprietors having got posses- The so- 
sion of the whole territory of Berkeley, and then becoming FriJnda 
embarrassed, made an assio;nment of his claims to three p"^- 

. . . . chase 

other members of his society, among whom was William west 
Penn, A division of the province took place, and the j^^^ 
Quaker purchasers of Berkeley's part obtained the western 
section, which was called West New Jersey. 

Meanwhile, in 1675, Philip Carteret, in behalf of his 
kinsman, resumed the administration of the other section, 
which was known as East New Jersey. The colony, 



92 CESSION OF NEW JERSEY TO THE FRIENDS. 

Book II. however, was disturbed by the claim of Andros to the 

Ch. 3. government, who even seized Carteret and detained him 

1675. i"^ New York as a prisoner. An agreement was at last 

Carte- ^^^^7 ^^ 1678, between the Duke of York and the East 

ret go- Jersey proprietors, who had granted a free constitution to 

ITiZt the settlers. 

^°^ In 1682, the whole province of East New Jersey was 

Jersey. ^ '^ •' 

purchased by William Penn and eleven other persons of 
the society of Friends. Twelve others were soon after 
"pen^ united with them, and to these twenty-four proprietors 
pur- the Duke of York executed a final grant of the province. 
East This resulted in a rapid emigration of Quakers from Eng- 
^'^^ land, and in the settlement of the country with an indus- 

Jersey. . 

trious and peaceful population. 

When James II., however, ascended the throne, 1685, 
he disregarded the engagements he had made, and at- 
tempted to deprive New Jersey of its privileges, but was 
prevented by the revolution which seated William and 
Mary on the throne in 1688. 
■[ggQ On account of the complaints brought against Andros 
to by the proprietaries of New Jersey he was recalled, and 
1688. Anthony Brokholst was left to administer the aifairs of 
Succos- the colony, who was succeeded, 1682, by Thomas Dugan, 
ve^rno^rt afterwards Earl of Limerick ; a man of moderation and 
of New probity. 

York 

under Ou accouut of the arbitrary manner in which taxes had 

James j^g^^ coUectcd, the people rose in indignation, accused the 
^^ collecter of the revenue. Dyer, of high treason, and sent 
pie of N. him to England to be tried. They moreover demanded 
quire ^^' ^^ *^^ Dukc of York a share of legislative authority as 
Hberty. i]^q only condition on which they would submit to taxa- 
tion, and the royal proprietary thought proper to grant a 
reluctant assent to the demands of the colonists. Dugan 
accordingly convoked an asscuibly which consisted of a 



T.T«TeR4T. oossTirrTiox or new york. 9o 

eoancil cf ten nominated bj the proprietary, and a house B(»k it. 
of ei^teen chosoi by the freeholdeis. And the people Ch. 2. 
of Xew York, after being governed for nearly twenty j^ p 
years by the ariutzaiy will of the I>uke of York and his loSS. 
depatie?, obtained a ftee constitntioQ at the Terj time the 
New England colonies irere deprived of theirs. 

In 16SS, Andros iras appoinied governor of Xew York Ai»div» 
as well as of New England, whose arbitrary and unlawful ^^tT* 
government has already been alluded to. "When the peo- Tarivr. 
pie of New England shook off his authority, on intelli- 
gence being received there of the English Kevoluti<Mi, 
New York fixUowed their example, and Jacob Leisler suc- 
ceeded in obtaining the government, which, however, he 
lefused to surrender to the governor whom King William 
had aj^ointed, and was consequently, in 1692. executed as 
a rebel. 

About the period of the revolution which placed "Wil- ^b^ r tt 
liam and Mazy on the thrcne of England, the city of <^^"'^ 
New York contained nearly four thousand inhabitants. 1G8S 
But its great importance as a ccmmercial mart was not 
then developed. The principal settlements were on the 
banks of the Hinison, and the inhabitants devoted them- 
selves mainly to agriculture. The population was chiefly 
Dutch, and the growth of the town was checked by dis- 
astrous Indian wai^ which will be described in a future 
chapter. The settlement of the Catholk edony of Mary- 
land now claims oar attentMm. 




Cecil Calvert, Second Lord Baltimore. 



94 



CHAPTER IV. 

SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. 

Among those who were persecuted in England for book il 
their religious opinions, during the reigns of James I. ch. 4. 
and Charles I., none suffered greater injustice than the ^ j^ 
Ptoman Catholics. The nation having, as it were, but 1640 
recently rebelled from Rome, it was natural that the ad- to 
herents of the old religion should be more closely watched, ■^^^^* 
and more severely punished; for the Catholics, like the Persccu- 
Puritans, not only sought religious toleration, but aimed Catho- 
at absolute supremacy. Indeed, they were subjected to a Jj'^^ ^^' 
double persecution — from the Established Church, which James L 
was jealous of her authority; and from the Puritans, who charios 
hated and feared them with peculiar intensity. Many ^• 
other circumstances contributed to make the Catholics 
odious to the nation. 

The cruelties of the reign of Mary, the meditated con- 
quest of England during the reign of Elizabeth by Philip 
II. of Spain, the repeated conspiracies of which the Ca- 
tholics were accused, the intrigues of the Jesuits, the 
Gunpowder Plot, the persecution to which the Protestants 
were subjected in France and Germany, and the evident 
inclination of James and Charles to relax penal severities, 
against the general voice of the nation — inclined Parlia- 
ment, and all corporate bodies entrusted with power, both 
in State and Church, to the greatest severity against the 
members of the Roman Catholic communion. They had 

(95) 



Ub LORD BALTIMORE. 

Book II. even stronger inducements than the Puritans to emigrate. 
Gh. 4. They were dealt with more harshly, unjustly, and absurdly. 
A. D. The breath of calumny or the whisper of distrust was 
1628. enough to consign a Catholic to irremediable disgrace and 

ruin. 
Patent Amoug the courtiers and ministers of James I. was a 
for New- tolerant and liberal-minded Catholic, who, for his distin- 

found- ' . 

land guished services, had been created an Irish peer by the 
toTord title of Lord Baltimore. While Secretary of State, he 
^^^^- had entered zealously into those schemes of colonization 
which then excited such general enthusiasm, and had ob- 
tained a special patent for the southern extremity of New- 
foundland. Twice he visited his territories on that island; 
but finding them unfavourable to a prosperous colony, he 
visited, in 1628, the infant settlements on James river. 
There he was not well received, on account of the prevail- 
ing prejudices against the Catholics, and he with difficulty 
escaped insult and injury. He therefore resolved to ob- 
tain a grant of some unoccupied territory, where he would 
be unmolested. The country on the shores of Chesapeake 
1632. Bay, beyond the Potomac, seemed to be uninhabited and 
Mary- unclaimed, except by the aborigines ; and of this country 
dedto he easily obtained a grant, in 1632, from Charles I. 
^^^' In honour of the queen, he gave to his new territory the 

name of Maryland. 
Liberal ^J ^he terms of the charter, Lord Baltimore was made 
charter, absolute lord and proprietor of the province, with the 
power to enact, with the consent of the colonists, all 
necessary laws. He had the patronage of churches, and 
the power to establish the necessary tribunals, to incorpo- 
rate cities, and to grant titles of honour. But he could 
not prevent emigration to his colony, nor had he power 
over the lives and property of the settlers. They were 
allowed a share in legislation, and representative govern- 



COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 97 

ment was indissolubly connected with the charter, which book ii. 
became the basis of all succeeding charters. Ch. 4. 

Lord Baltimore died before this charter was issued; a. d. 
but it was granted to his son and heir, Cecil Calvert, by 1634. 
whose exertions a colony was auspiciously begun in 1633. M^ry. 
The second Lord Baltimore did not conduct the enterprise \^^^ <'°- 
in person ; but commissioned his brother, Leonard Cal- by Cai- 
vert, as his representative, under whose guidance about 
two hundred persons, mostly Catholics, sought shelter in 
the new world. 

Under the mild and judicious government of the lord Prosp©- 
proprietary, Maryland received constant accessions. The Jig coio- 
governor promised a thousand acres of land to all who ^y- 
should introduce five new-comers, for which a rent of 
twenty shillings was demanded, which was payable in 
tobacco, the staple commodity of the colony. But every 
person employed in planting tobacco was required to cul- 
tivate also two acres of corn. So luxuriant were the 
crops, that within two years from the arrival of the first 
colonists, ten thousand bushels of Indian corn were sent 
to New England, and profitably exchanged for fish and 
other provisions. 

But material prosperity was not the greatest blessing Reii- 
experienced by the thriving colony. Religious liberty ^bSty. 
was granted and enjoyed, and an example set even to the 
Puritans themselves, who, with all their virtues, never yet 
were willing to admit that such a blessing as religious 
liberty could be extended by a Roman Catholic lawgiver. 

Virginia viewed with jealousy the prosperity of her 
sister colony, and especially the superior liberty which the iiostiii- 
planters of Maryland enjoyed. The Virginia planters, ^J-^fJ^^ 
from the first, had opposed the charter granted to Lord 
Baltimore, but had been compelled by the government at 
home to withdraw their opposition. And the validity of 
9 



98 REVOLUTION IN MARYLAND. 

Book h. the grant also encountered an obstinate resistance from 

Ch.4. William Clajborn, a member of Sir John Harvey's 

A. D. Council, who claimed the territory as his own. 

1642. Nor was this all. In consequence of the generous 

Animo- toleration which the Catholic settlers of Maryland had 

thrpro- g^^^^^dj many distressed Protestants had sought shelter, 

testants. in the territories of Lord Baltimore, from the persecution 

of their own brethren. They were ungrateful enough 

to conspire against the interests of the original settlers, 

and to seek to abolish the Catholic religion. Clayborn 

fanned the religious dissensions which the governor strove 

to prevent ; and such was the success of his intrigues, and 

the animosity of the Protestant inhabitants, that the 

government of the lord proprietary was overthrown, and 

even that religious liberty which he had granted was taken 

away, and by those very men who had fled originally to 

Maryland for protection. 

Re-estflr On the restoration of Charles II., in 1660, the autho- 

bhsh- j.j|. q£ Lord Baltimore was re-established, oifences were 

ment of •' ■^ 

order, generously forgiven, and religious toleration restored. 
Prosperity returned, industry was rewarded, and useful 
laws enforced. Charles Calvert, son of the proprietary, 
in 1662 became resident governor, and ruled with great 
wisdom and moderation, preventing the encroachments of 
the Dutch, and securing peace with the Indians. When 
he succeeded his venerable father in 1676 as lord propri- 
etary, the province contained twenty thousand inhabitants, 
who equally enjoyed the privilege of religious liberty, 
which was sacredly maintained so long as Lord Baltimore 
retained his rights, and the Catholic population their 
ascendency. 



CHAPTER V. 

SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA. 

The first settlement of Carolina was projected by the ^^^^ jj 
Huguenots of France, during the civil wars in the reign ^^^^ 
of Charles IX,, 1562. Under the auspices of Admiral 
Coligny, the celebrated Huguenot leader, three vessels 15(30, 
were despatched to the mouth of Albemarle river, which ^ 

■^ . , Unsuo- 

were followed in 1564 by three additional ones, and these cessfui 
again, soon after, by a fleet, with all the necessaries for a ^*^f ^^ 
permanent settlement. They were befriended by the Carolina 
Indians, and had every reasonable prospect of prosperity Hugue- 
and peace. But religious bigotry induced the King of ^°*^- 
Spain to send out a hostile expedition to the distant set- 
tlement ; and the colonists, unprepared for war, and sus- 
pecting no danger, were barbarously murdered. Nearly 
one thousand persons perished from religious persecution, 
and by a foreign power. Nor was the crime avenged by 
the French government, then under the influence of the 
ever-execrable Catherine de Medicis, who sympathized 
with the bloody deed. Though the Spaniards were after- 
wards punished and destroyed in their turn, no further 
attempt was made by the French to colonize this section 
of the American continent. 

It was more than sixty years before any new schemes ratent 
of colonization were projected. In 1630, a patent was ^-^^ted 
granted by Charles I. to his attorney-general, Sir Robert charies 
Heath, which he afterwards assigned to the Earl of Arun- ^' 

(99) 



100 CHARLES II. GRANTS A PATENT. 

Book h. del; but no serious attempt was made to settle the 
Ch. 5. country. 

1630. Soon after the restoration of Charles II. the country 
Patent' ^^uth of the Chesapeake was made a royal province by 
granted the name of Carolina, from Albemarle Sound to the River 

by . . 

Charles St. John. This territory was conveyed to eight proprie- 
■"■• taries, chiefly courtiers and ministers of the King, among 
whom were the Lord Chancellor Clarendon, the Duke of 
Albemarle (formerly G-eneral Monk), the Earl of Shaftes- 
bury, Lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret. The char- 
ter was nearly similar to the one granted to Lord Balti- 
more. The eight grantees were made joint proprietaries, 
with the right of property to the soil and extensive juris- 
diction. 
New But before their charter was granted some New Eng- 

emf ^'^^ land adventurers had already planted a little colony near 
grants, the mouth of Cape Fear Biver, and to these colonists the 
proprietaries offered liberal terms ; giving them abundance 
of land at a nominal rent, liberty of conscience, and right 
to choose a governor and six councillors. The colony, 
however, was not prosperous, chiefly on account of the 
barrenness of the land and the insalubrity of the climate. 
1622. It should be also stated that the country north of Albe- 
Aibe- marie Sound was feebly colonized, 1622, by some perse- 
marie cuted emigrants from Virginia, who had dissented from 
ment. the establishment of the Church of England in that 
colony. This settlement attracted the attention of the 
proprietaries soon after they had received their charter, 
and Berkeley, governor of Virginia, and one of the gran- 
tees of Carolina, appointed William Drummond, a man 
of prudence and popularity, to direct its affairs. 

In September, 1665, some planters from Barbadoes, 
dissatisfied with their condition, purchased of the Indians 
a tract on Cape Fear river, and commenced a settlement. 



NORTH CAROLINA. 101 

They begged and obtained from the proprietaries, the con- book ii. 
firmation of the purchase, and liberal terms of settlement; ch. 5. 
and so rapid was the increase, that, in 1666, the planta- ^ jy 
tion, which were called Clarendon, contained eight hun- 1666. 
dred people. Its affairs were ably and successfully ma- 
naged by Sir John Yeamans, the governor. Albemarle 
and Clarendon formed distinct colonies for a while, with 
a governor to each, but constitute the original foundation 
of North Carolina. 

It was soon discovered that the colony was not within Exten- 
the limits of the charter granted by Charles, and the g^^^t by 
grant was therefore extended so as to include all the coun- chaxies. 
try between twenty-nine and thirty-six degrees thirty 
minutes north latitude — from the present limits of North 
Carolina to nearly the southern extremity of Florida, and 
extending west to the Pacific Ocean. 

Great schemes of colonization were formed by the pro- Scheme 
prietaries of this extensive territory. They were absolute nization. 
owners of the soil; they had the right of legislation, 
subject only to the consent of the future freemen of the 
colony ; they had the power of erecting cities and manors, 
of establishing orders of nobility, of levying troops, and 
of making peace or war. They expected to reap an 
immense revenue from colonial customs and the sale of 
lands. 

It was therefore deemed proper to establish a form of shaftes- 
government commensurate with the future dignity and QlYnd 
greatness of the colony; and the Earl of Shaftesbury, 
one of the greatest geniuses of the age, a statesman and 
a philosopher, was deputed to draft a constitution. Ho 
called to his assistance the celebrated John Locke, author 
of the Essay on the Human Understanding ; and these 
two great men employed all the energy of their genius in 
preparing a form of government which excited great gid- 
9* 



Model. 



102 THE GRAND MODEL. 

Book II. miration among the political philosophers and dreamers 
Ch. 5. of their day. It was called the " Grand Model/' or the 
j^ j)^ " Fundamental Constitution/' according to which the vast 
1669. territory of Carolinaj embracing the present States of 
The North and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, 
^•^^^J Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, Missouri, and 
Consti- a large portion of Texas and Mexico, was to be divided 
ution. .^^^ counties, each containing 480,000 acres. For each 
county a landgrave, and two caciques or barons, were to 
be created, who were to possess one-fifth of the land as 
inalienable property. Another fifth was to belong to the 
proprietaries, and the remaining three-fifths were reserved 
for the colonists, and might be held by lords of manors, 
with peculiar privileges. These landgraves and caciques 
were an hereditary nobility, and, together with the depu- 
ties of the proprietaries and the representatives chosen by 
freemen, were to constitute the Parliament of the pro- 
vince, which was to assemble biennially. No man was 
eligible to any office unless he possessed property in land; 
and every freeman was allowed to possess absolute autho- 
rity over his negro slaves, who had been early introduced 
and found necessary to till the soil. A man was required 
to own fifty acres in order to possess the elective franchise, 
and five hundred acres before he was eligible to Parlia- 
ment. Those who were merely tenants of the land were 
subject to perpetual degradation, "adscript to the soil," 
"under the jurisdiction of their lord, without appeal," 
" leet men or tenants to all generations." 

All executive power, and even judicial, in the last 
resort, was vested in the proprietaries themselves, the old- 
est of whom received the title of Palatine, and presided 
in their meetings. Each proprietary was chief of a sub- 
ordinate court. A complicated series of perplexing regu- 
lations enforced the duties and limited the rights of the 



DEFECTS OF THE MODEL 103 

freeholders. The Church of England was the established book ii. 
religion, although every other form was tolerated. Cb. 5. 

This famous system of jurisprudence, of which Locke ^ p_ 
was so proud, was of com*se utterly unfitted to the circum- 1669. 
stances and wants of the settlers, and could not be en- 
forced. It was impossible to erect an aristocratic, and 
almost feudal government, in the forests of Carolina. 
There was no scope for landgraves, and barons, and courts 
of heraldry, among the scattered cabins of an almost un- 
inhabited wilderness. The grand model was complicated, 
absurd, and visionary. Theoretical philosophers have 
ever proved themselves unfit for practical legislation, how- 
ever liberal their minds, or brilliant their genius. 

In 1670, the Duke of Albemarle was installed in the 1670. 
office of Palatine, and 12,000Z. expended on the equipment Aibe-^ 
of a fleet, which sailed the following year with a consider- adminis- 
able body of emigrants. It was designed to found a ^^^^^^^' 
colony at Port Royal, and Col. William Sayle was ap- 
pointed its governor. He was accompanied by Joseph 
Dent as commercial agent of the company. But the 
colonists did not long remain at Port Koyal. After a 
short delay, they sailed into Ashley river, and commenced 
a settlement which they called Charleston, in honour of 
Charles II. This was the foundation of South Carolina. 

Before we trace the progress of this settlement, the Stevens 
little colonies of Albemarle and Clarendon claim our or o?ai- 
attention. The constitutional history of North Carolina bemarie. 
begins before Shaftesbury and Locke had matured their 
scheme of government. In 1667, Samuel Stevens suc- 
ceeded Drummond as governor of Albemarle, which had 
been increased by emigrants from New England and the 
Bermudas. A simple form of government was adopted — 
a council of twelve members, and an assembly composed 
of the governor, the council, and twelve delegates from 



104 INSURRECTION OF CULPEPPER. 

Book II. the infant settlement. Every encouragement was ex- 
Ch. 5. tended to the colonists, who enjoyed, for a while, prospc- 
A. D. I'ity and contentment. 

167*4. But the government which practical wisdom had sug- 
Confu- gested was overturned by the proprietaries, who wished to 
^J^°^ substitute that which Locke had devised. Confusion and 
lony. discontent were the inevitable result. The country was 
left without a governor, in 1674, by the death of Stevens; 
and Cartwright, Speaker of the Assembly, acted for two 
years as head of the administration. The difficulty of 
introducing the Grand Model induced Cartwright to visit 
England, to lay the state of the country before the pro- 
prietaries. The colony was now left in confusion, and 
no historian has, thus far, presented a clear statement 
of its affairs at this early period. It seems, however, 
that the designs of the proprietaries were not promoted 
by the provincial functionaries. Discontent was added to 
faction. One Miller succeeded in holding the triple office 
of governor, secretary, and collector, 1677; but such was 
his strict execution of the laws, that an insurrection took 
1677. place, headed by John Culpepper, which seems to have 
Popular heen both popular and successful. Miller and seven of 
rection. bis council Were imprisoned, and Culpepper assumed the 
government, and even refused to acknowledge the author- 
ity of Eastchurch, whom the company had appointed 
governor, but who died shortly after, 1678. Miller suc- 
ceeded in making his escape to England, and filled tlie 
court with complaints of his sufferings. Culpepper fol- 
lowed him, and, protected by Shaftesbury, succeeded in 
gaining the ear of the proprietaries. While these rivals 
were disputing about their respective claims, Seth Sothel, 
who had purchased the rights of Lord Clarendon, was 
selected as governor of the province, 1680 ; but did not 
arrive at Albemarle until 1683, having been taken cap- 



GOVERNOR SOTHEL. 105 

tive by the AlgerineS; from whom, however, he contrived book n. 
to escape. Ch. 5. 

The administration of this man was marked by injus- a. d. 
tiee and oppression, and his name is more infamous than 1G80. 
any of the tyrannical governors who ever mismanaged the corrupt 
affairs of the Endish colonies in North America. He ^^ ^^, 

~ vere aJ- 

cheated his associates, and robbed the colonists. He minis- 
exacted enormous contributions, and engrossed the traffic ^^^^ 
with the Indians. Driven to despaii-, the people whom thei. 
he oppressed unanimously took up arms against him, in 
1688. He was deposed and imprisoned. Rather than 
be sent to England for trial, he abjectly begged to be 
judged by the Provincial Assembly, which sentenced him 
to banishment and perpetual exclusion from office. He 
then made his appearance in Charleston, and, in his cha- 
racter of proprietary, succeeded in securing the office of 
governor of the southern province, the affairs of which 
now demand attention. 

It has been stated that the banks of Ashley river were 1671. 
colonized by a company led by William Sayle. The first Settie- 
site for a town had been selected without regard to com- charies. 
merce, 1671. Its disadvantages being perceived, the set- ^^• 
tiers removed to a neck of land called Oyster Point, which 
gradually became the most prosperous mart of southern 
commerce, and the largest city of the southern colonies. 

Soon after the planting of the colony, Sii' John Yea- 
mans arrived from Barbadoes with additional settlers, and 
with African slaves, and, on the death of Sayle, was ap- 
pointed governor, 1671. The same year, two ships with 
Dutch emigrants arrived from New York, discontented 
with the English rule. Some accessions also came from 
England ; but the colonists were exposed to unusual dan- 
ger, hardship, and misery. The heat of the country was 
peculiarly oppressive to men doomed to severe manual 



of Hu- 
guenots 



106 FREQUENT CHANGE OF GOVERNORS. 

^QQ^ IJ- labour. Their food was frequentl}^ destroyed by Indian 
Ch. 5. depredators, with whom it was their misfortune to be in 
A, D. constant collision. The losses which the proprietaries 
1671. sustained, embittered their feelings both towards the go- 
Misfor- vernor and the settlers. In consequence of the calamities 
the a)io- ^^ ^^^ colony, Ycamaus was superseded by Joseph West, 
ny. 1674 ; and as he preferred the interests of the colonists 
to those of the proprietaries, he was displaced in 1683, 
and Joseph Moreton appointed to succeed him. No less 
than six governors ruled the province during the six suc- 
ceeding years, none of whom realized the anticipations of 
the proprietaries, who expected to derive a profit from 
their investments. 
Arrival Nevertheless, the colony rapidly increased in population 
and wealth, reinforced by emigrants from Ireland, Scot- 
land, New England, and even France. "When the Edict 
of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV. in 1685, a large 
body of Huguenots sought a refuge from persecution in 
the various colonies of the new world. But no one of 
them was more inviting to these unfortunate refugees 
than South Carolina. From Languedoc, Rochelle, Bor- 
deaux, St. Quentin, Poictiers, and Dieppe, considerable 
numbers sought the land in which religious toleration was 
enjoyed; and to these exiles, some of the most consider- 
able families of South Carolina are proud to trace their 
origin. 
Failure When the English revolution of 1688 broke out, the 
i*ns^Stu-^ colonists were so powerful and numerous as to defy the 
tions. authority of the proprietaries. Neither the rank, nor 
reputation, nor talents of the governor could secure obe- 
dience to feudal institutions. Colleton was unable to 
collect rents, or even maintain order. The people resolved 
to secure a government more agreeable to themselves, and 
more favourable to the extension of liberty. In 1690, a 



POrULAR REVOLUTION. 107 

meeting of the representatives of the colony disfranchised book tl 
the governor, and banished him from the province. Seth Ch. 5. 
Sothel about this time making his appearance at Charles- a. d. 
ton, headed the opposition, and succeeded in securing the 1690. 
government of the province, which was now firmly 
planted. 

But his tyrannical temper again subjected him to hos- 
tility, and he was compelled to resign. He died, soon 
after, in North Carolina. 

An event, insignificant in itself, happened in 1694, to intro- 
which the prosperity of the colony is in no slight degree J^]^^ 
to be traced. The captain of a ship from Madagascar 
presented Grovernor Smith, under whose administration 
the Fundamental Constitutions were finally abandoned, 
with a bag of rice. The governor divided it among his 
friends, who planted it, in several parcels, in different 
soils, and reaped from it a prodigious increase. Thus was 
introduced one of the chief staples of South Carolina, and 
which, next to cotton, has contributed materially to its 
wealth. 




William Penn. 



108 



CHAPTER VI. 

SETTLEMENT OP PENNSYLVANIA. 

While Virginia was settled by aristocratic adventu- ^^^^ jj 
rers, mostly members of the Church of England — New ^jj^ g 
York by the Dutch, who sought the shores of the new 
world with the view of improving their fortunes — Massa- 
chusetts by Puritans, Rhode Island by Baptists, Mary- Difer- 
land by Catholics, and Carolina by Huguenots, who alike pP^j^g"^' 
sought a refuge from religious persecution — Pennsylvania which 
was colonized by the Society of Friends, who also desired different 
greater liberty of religious worship than was enjoyed settlers. 
either under Episcopal or Puritan influences. 

Greorge Fox, the founder of this sect, was one of the 1 543 
most remarkable geniuses who ever impressed his mind 
on future generations, without the advantages of early fox, 
education and social position. The fundamental principle 
which he declared was, that the " Inner Light,'' or the 
Spirit of God, would reveal to all earnest inquirers every 
important truth pertaining to the soul's welfai-e and salva-^ 
lion; and that the Spirit, though in harmony with the Scrip- 
tures, because they are the revelation of God, was still higher 
than the declaration of the Scriptures, inasmuch as the 
fountain is ever greater than the stream which issues 
from it. This doctrine of divine inward revelation. Fox 
and his followers would not subject to the test either of 
the outward authority of the Scriptures, or natural rea- 
son. Following the promptings of the Inner Light, or 
10 (109) 



110 THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS. 

sqok II- what he conceived to be a special revelation of the Al- 
Ch. 6. mighty, Fox instituted many changes in the worship of 
A. D. Crod and in social life, which were not in harmony with 
1650. the practice of any other Christian sect, or the established 
Princi- institutions of society. He dispensed with the teachings 
GeOT^e ^^ ^ regular clergy, and the ordinary forms and ceremo- 
Fox. nies of existing churches. He swept away the ordination 
of the clergy, baptism, the Lord's Supper, the music of 
the choir, and all emblematical ceremonies. He refused 
to give titles of honour, to take an oath even of subser- 
viency to the sovereign, or to enlist as a soldier. He 
condemned all war, and all doctrines of expediency. He 
would abolish all penal laws for religious opinions, all 
slavery, and resort to coercion in government. He advo- 
cated unbounded religious toleration, and universal phi- 
lanthropy. 
Persecu- ^^i" ^^^ advocacy of such principles he was cruelly por- 
tion of secuted, as was to be expected in the seventeenth century. 
ciety. So wcro his disciplcs. They were confined in jails, muti- 
lated, and even punished with death. 
William Among the followers of Fox was William Penn, son 
Penn. of Admiral Sir William Penn, who had rendered great 
jaaval services to his country, and who left to his son a 
very large fortune. William Penn had early become a 
convert to the principles of Fox, and had suffered divers 
persecutions in consequence, from his family and from the 
English government. Still, he was true to his principles, 
and maintained great serenity of mind in disgrace and 
suffering. His distinguished social rank, however, and 
his great talents, secured him high consideration, in spite 
of his unpopular doctrines, and he had easy access to the 
court of Charles II. Among the bequests of his father 
was a claim against the government for 16,000/. This 
was cancelled by a grant from Charles II. of a province 



WILLIAM PENN. Ill 

in the new world, which included three degrees of latitude book h- 
and five degrees of longitude west of the Delaware, 1681. Ch. 6. 
The royal charter conferred on him powers similar to a. d. 
those which had been granted to Lord Baltimore, and the 1681. 
^persecuted Quaker became a feudal proprietary. The Grant to 
province, of which he was constituted absolute proprietor, ^^^^ 
was called Pennsylvania. 

Early the next year, 1682, Penn publi^ed his cele- ms 
brated "Frame of Government" for his future colony; g^^^J^ 
and, in the following September, set sail for his new ment 
domains in the wilderness, accompanied by one hundred 
emigrants. When he arrived on the banks of the Dela- 
ware, he found already a thriving colony of three thou- 
sand persons, chiefly Swedes and Dutch, intermixed with 
the English settlers, principally Quakers, who had emi- 
grated shortly before. In the course of the year, no less 
than two thousand additional colonists amved, many of 
them being persons of wealth and consideration in 
England- 

Among the first acts of the proprietar}^, after he had Treaty 
visited the various settlements of his infant colony, was ^^^^ 
his famous treaty with the Indians. Beneath a large elm 
tree on the banks of the Delaware, where Philadelphia 
now stands, he met a numerous delegation of the Lenni- 
Lenape tribes. There, to the original inhabitants of the 
land, he proclaimed the principles of peace and love which 
should regulate all his future intercourse with them. 
" On the broad pathway of good faith and good-will," 
said he, ^' no advantage will be taken on either side. I 
will not call you children, for parents sometimes chide 
their children too severely; nor brothers only, for bro- 
thers difier. The friendship between you and me, I will 
not compare to a chain ; for that the rains might rust, or 
the falling tree might break. We are the same as if one 



112 penn's legislation. 

Book h. man^s body were to be divided into two parts ; we are all 
Ch.6. one flesh and blood." "We will live/' responded the 
A. D. simple children of the forest, touched by these beautiful 

1682. doctrines, "in love with William Penn and his children, 
as long as the sun and moon shall endure." 

Permar This glorious treaty, not confirmed by oaths or parch- 



the^ ment, was long sacredly regarded by both white man and 
treaty. in(jjan ; and for seventy years, it is recorded, not a drop 
of Quaker blood was shed by the aborigines, in spite of 
all the encroachments of the new settlers upon their 
ancient hunting-grounds. 
Legisiar The treaty with the Indians was an act prompted by 
tion of generous impulses, and a regard to those laws of immu- 
table justice which Fox had nobly propounded. The 
constitution which Penn gave to his people was the 
result of great practical wisdom and enlarged views. For 
his legislative genius, Penn is now generally regarded as 
a benefactor to the human race ; for, though he made 
laws for only a small colony, the principles on which they 
are based have entered into the schemes and systems of 
subsequent philanthropists, not in America merely, but in 
England and the countries of the continent. 
Unboun- William Penn gave to all the colonists, of whatsoever 
dedreii- qj.qq^ qj, nation, the most generous religious toleration. 

gious to- 7 & o 

leration. He abolished the law of primogeniture, and instituted the 
rule of equality. All had the right of suffrage who sub- 
mitted to the burdens of society. No taxes were to be 
levied without the people's consent. Murder was the 
only crime punishable with death. County courts were 
established for the administration of justice, with trial by 
jury. The word of an honest man was received as evi' 
dence, without oath. Every Christian, of whatsoever 
creed, was eligible to office. 

When the work of legislation was finished, Penn, ii* 



CONSTITUTION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 113 

1682, accompanied by his council, hastened to Newcastle book ii. 
to meet Lord Baltimore, and establish the limits of their Ch. g. 
respective territories. There were many difficulties to be a. d, 
settled; for Lord Baltimore claimed the whole country as 168e3. 
far north as the fortieth degree of latitude. Penn insist- 
ed that the charter of Maryland included only lands that 
were unoccupied ; and as the banks of the Delaware had 
been purchased and colonized before that charter was 
written, they justly belonged to the original settlers. The 
proprietaries parted without coming to an agreement, 
intending to meet again. 

To a part of this disputed territory some Swedish set- rounda- 
tlers had laid claim. Penn obtained from them, by a ^^^^^^ 
promise of giving them other lands in exchange, a tract atdeipWa. 
the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill. Near this, 
he laid out the plan of an extensive city, which he called 
Philadelphia; designed as "a city of refuge" — "the 
mansion of humanity;'' where the Quaker brethren 
"might worship God according to the dictates of the 
Divine Principle, free from the mouldy errors of tradi- 
tion ;'' and where they " might thrive in peace and retire- 
ment in the lap of unadulterated nature,'' "on a virgin 
Elysian shore." So rapid was the growth of the city, that 
eighty houses were erected before the close of the year 1683. 

But while the new-comers lodged in caves and hollow 
trees, the Quaker sovereign summoned together the repre- The pri- 
sentatives of his dominions in the wilderness for the pur- ^^^'^&'^^ 

^ winch 

pose of making such alterations in the original constitution I'onu 
as the circumstances of the colony required. More power f^^^l^f 
was given to the people, who had the privilege of nomi- coio- 
nating the council of the governor, and also all other 
officers, except the governor, who was hereditary proprie- 
tary ; nor could even he perform any public act but with the 
consent of his council. Penn not only gave a free con- 
10* 



114 PENN'S return to ENGLAND. 

Book ii. stitutioii to his coloDj, but dispensed with a reverence for 

Ch. 6. himself. Tax-gatherers were unknown in the province. 

^ J). The principle which seemed to animate his whole govern- 

1683 ment and legislation was to make the people as free and 

happy as they could be. 

The fame of his settlement went through Europe, and 
emigrants, seeking an asylum from persecution or misfor- 
tune, hastened to the banks of the Delaware from Eng- 
land, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Holland, and Germany. 
The institution and government of Penn inspired both 
confidence and admiration. The colony increased more 
rapidly than New England; and in three years from the 
foundation of Philadelphia, it numbered more inhabitants 
than New York had gained for half a century. 

When the government was fully organized, peace with 

Penn re- the uativcs confii'mcd, and wise laws established, Penn 

turn/- to ^qq]j leave of his people with expressions of affection and 

land. generosity, and returned to England. One object of his 

return was to settle his dispute with Lord Baltimore; 

between whom and himself misunderstanding had ripened 

into a quarrel. The question about the respective bounda- 

Settie- ries of Pennsylvania and Maryland was discussed before 

ment of ^^^ committee of the plantations. Delaware, which had 

bonnda- ^ ' 

ries. been originally settled by the Swedes, was separated from 
Maryland. To Penn was assigned half of the territory 
between the Delaware and the Chesapeake north of the 
latitude of Cape Henlopen. But this decision did not 
end the dispute; and it was not till 1750 that the present 
boundaries of Pennsylvania were decreed by the Lord 
Chancellor Hardwicke. Eleven years after, the southern 
line between Pennsylvania and Maryland was run by 
Mason and Dixon ; which forms the present division of 
free and slave laboui'. 

Notwithstanding Penn, as absolute proprietary of an 



PENN REVISITS HIS COLONY. 115 

extensive province, granted the most generous and liberal book it. 
terms to the colonists, and although they, as a body, were Ch. c. 
intelligent and virtuous, they were yet not long contented a. d. 
with their privileges; so hard is it for man, in his degene- 1690. 
racy, to be satisfied with any blessing which Providence Disoon- 
bestows. They aimed at still greater freedom; to di- J^^^^^JJ^ 
minish the little remaining authority of that great and nists. 
benevolent man who had given them a shelter, and to 
impair his revenues. The colonial assembly made changes 
which were both unconstitutional and ungenerous, and the 
executive power was but feebly administered. 

In 1699, Penn revisited the colony he had formed, 1699. 
accompanied by his family, with the intention of spending Return 
his days on the banks of the Delaware. Still, difficulties ^^ ^^^^ 

. . . . to his 

continued. The colonists were dissatisfied with the exist- colony, 
ing constitution. Negro slavery and Indian intercourse 
were subjects of continual disquiet. The tenants of the 
proprietary wished to abolish the payment of their rents. 
In short, Penn found so few inducements to remain, that 
he resolved to return to his native land. 

He remained long enough, however, to settle many of 1701. 
the difficulties which were subjects of complaint, and, in -^^^ 
1701, prepared a new frame of government, which con- charter 
tinned in force until the revolutionary war. The most syiva- 
striking feature of the altered constitution was the right °^** 
of the assembly to originate laws, which had previously 
been vested in the governor ; but it allowed the governor 
a negative on all bills, and the right of appointing his 
council. 

This new charter, which was a sort of compromise Thecoio 
between the proprietary and the colonists, was not ac- ^^j^ 
cepted by the Three Lower Counties, which separated from ^^re. 
Pennsylvania, and which formed what is now the State 
of Delaware, whose original inhabitants were Swedes, and 



116 PENN RETURNS TO ENGLAND. 

^'^^ ^- who, in 1627, under the auspices of Gustavus Adolphus, 
Ch. 6. emigrated to America and landed at Cape Henlopen. After 
A. D. several times changing masters, the territory was surren- 
1701. dered to the Dutch, who had laid claim to it, and they 
held possession until 1664, when it was seized by Sir 
Robert Carr and made a part of New York. In 1682, 
the Duke of York sold the town of New Castle and 
twelve miles round to William Penn, and afterwards the 
country between it and Cape Henlopen, and this territory 
constituted the Three Lower Counties as a part of Penn- 
sylvania. 
Return So soou as the last charter of Penn was accepted, he 
ot Penn returned to England; but only to be harassed by com- 
land. plaints against the deputies whom he had appointed. Nor 
were the discontents allayed during his life, notwithstand- 
ing the great benefits he had conferred, not only on his 
colony in particular, but as a benefactor of mankind at 
large, and as one of the most distinguished reformers 
whom our world has produced ; a legislator surpassing the 
Solons and Justinians of antiquity in practical wisdom, a 
philanthropist to whom the Howards and Wilberforces 
of succeeding ages must yield precedence as an original 
genius — as a man who far outstripped all his contempo- 
raries in enlargement of mind as well as generosity of 
soul. 
Growth No province gained so rapidly in population as Penn- 
and re- gyiy^nia after it was once settled, in spite of all the diffi- 

sources •' 7 r 

of the culties of the settlers with provincial governors, and with 
^^* the great proprietary himself. In 1701, it is computed 
that it contained 20,000 inhabitants; while Virginia, which 
had been colonized nearly eighty years earlier, contained 
at that time only 40,000. Massachusetts at this period 
could boast of 70,000 souls, Connecticut of 30,000, Khode 
Island 10,000, New Hampshire 10,000, New York 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION. 117 

30,000, New Jersey 15,000, Maryland 25,000, and North book ii. 
and South Carolina 12,000 more— in all, 262,000. Cb. g. 

These various colonies imported from England all their a. d. 
merchandise, and exported tobacco, poultry, beef, pork, 1701. 
fish, grain, and lumber. Furs were the principal article General 
of export from the New England colonies, and tobacco ??°^'' 
from the southern. As the colonists, during the period the co- 
of their settlement, were chiefly occupied in gaining a 
subsistence, not much attention was paid to art and manu- 
factures. The first buildings were made of logs, or were 
constructed of stone, and few had more rooms than the 
absolute wants of the people required. 

Travelling was almost entirely on foot or on horseback. Habits 
the roads being chiefly only narrow paths through the t^ms^'of' 
primeval forests. Schools were early instituted, and a t^e Eng- 
common education highly valued. Manners were severe, tiers, 
and morals generally pure. Laws were rigidly enforced, 
and all disturbers of the public peace were promptly 
punished. Many superstitions were mixed with the sim- 
ple notions of the early settlers, and many unhappy per- 
secutions accordingly resulted. 

The desire of self-government and love of liberty were 
the prominent traits of the colonists, from Massachusetts 
Bay to the coast of Florida. And when these were min- 
gled with zeal for the honour of God and the prevalence 
of religious truth, the most noble virtues were engen- 
dered, and a state prepared for the future development of 
all that is great in character and in passion. 

The colonization of all the States which subsequently 
rebelled against the authority of Enf^Lad being now 
effected, except that of Georgia, we turn to consider the 
discoveries and settlements made by the French in North 
America. 




/?/A/o/i/. sr ^ 



Marquette descending the Mississippi. 



CHAPTER VII. 

FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. 

The efforts which the French made to possess them- book n. 
selves of the North American continent, are too important ch. 7. 
to be omitted in a history of the United States, especially ^ ^ 
in view of the wars to which they subsequently led, and 1615. 
the great consequence of these settlements on the future 
history of the country. 

The French, at an early period, were not inferior to the Motives 
English in enthusiasm for discovery, in intrepidity and i^ ^^^^ 
endurance amid dangers, in eagerness to engross the trade ^^^^^ 
with the Indians and the fisheries on the coast, or in am- da. 
bition to possess a supremacy on the continent. Nor 
were their motives, in many instances, without loftiness 
and moral grandeur. The Puritans fled to the wilderness 
of Massachusetts to enjoy their religion; the French 
sought the wilds of Canada to convert the Indians to the 
Catholic faith. There was a romance exhibited by the 
Jesuits, in their wanderings both to convert the natives 
and explore the country, never since surpassed. '' My 
companion," said the fearless Marquette, " is an envoy of 
France to discover new countries j but I am an ambassa- 
dor of God to enlighten them with the gospel." 

As early as 1G15, Champlain explored the lake which 
bears his name. In 1626, Franciscan priests had made 
their way to the waters of the Niagara; and, in less than 
ten years after, the members of the Society of Jesus had 

(119J 



120 JESUIT MISSIONS. 

Book II. penetrated to the eastern projection of Lake Huron, not 
Ch.7. with the yiew of founding States, but of converting angry 
j^ D, savages to the truths of Christianity. Montreal became a 
1626. missionary station, and a school for the instruction of 
intrepi- Indian children, within four years of the foundation of Har- 
dity of ^^Yd College. Still earlier than this, in 1634, an humble 

Jesuit ° T XT •!. 

mission- church had been consecrated among the Huron tribes 
^^^^^' by Brebeuf and Daniel, and converts to the Roman faith 
been made among the primeval forests which skirted the 
Their Ottawa river. Within thirteen years, forty-two of the 
Son of zealous followers of Loyola had laboured among these dis- 
the In- tant tribes, enduring unparalleled privation and hardship, 
and exposed to constant danger. The Mohawk war par- 
ties captured many a missionary who attested his sincerity 
by a triumphant martyrdom; for the Iroquois, or Five 
Nations, who chased the deer in the interior of New York, 
were hereditary enemies of the Algonquin tribes who 
dwelt on the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario. Of all the 
Iroquois, the Mohawks were the most dreaded ; for they 
lived nearest the European settlements, and made constant 
war on the white man, whether missionary or hunter, 
whether French or English. They had learned from the 
Dutch the use of fire-arms, and bade defiance to forts and 
entrenchments. 
Discove- But Canada was not the only scene of Jesuit intrepid- 
Misf's-'^^ ity. Missions were established on the southern outlets 
Eippi. of Lake Superior, and the country was explored to the 
source of the Mississippi, which great river the adventu- 
rers descended in 1673, passing in succession the mouths 
of the Illinois, the Missouri, and the Ohio, until they 
reached the Arkansas. The glory of this enterprise 
belongs to Marquette, who had laboured for years as a 
missionary among the Hurons. 

The discovery of the " father of waters" was received 



JESUIT EXPLORATIONS. 121 

with enthusiasm in the mother country, and quickened book n. 
the ambition of Colbert, the minister of the French King. Ch. 7. 
Nor were there wanting adventurers to prosecute further a. d. 
discoveries, and add new value to the crown of France. 1679. 
Of these, the most distinguished was La Salle, who had La saiie 
been the first white man to explore Lake Ontario, and explores 

•*• ' the great 

navigate the waters of Niagara. Under the auspices of lakes. 
Colbert, who furnished him with ample means, 1679, he 
sailed over the great lakes in a vessel of sixty tons, and 
cast anchor in Green Bay. The vessel was sent back 
laden with furs, but was unfortunately lost. La Salle and 
his company proceeded, meanwhile, in birch bark canoes, 
up Lake Michigan to the mouth of the St. Joseph, and 
soon after crossed to a branch of the Illinois, which they 
descended, and then made their way back to Fort Fronte- 
nac, now Kingston, a port at the outlet of Lake Ontario. 
In their absence. Father Hennepin and another priest had 
descended the Illinois to the Mississippi, and then, ascend- 
ing the river, penetrated to the Falls of St. Anthony. 

In 1680, having recruited his company. La Salle iggO. 
returned to the Illinois country, and built a fort which he Discove- 
called St. Louis, and the next year descended the Missis- LouLa- 
sippi in a barge which he had built during the winter, »». 
and safely reached its mouth. He then formally took 
possession of the country, which he called, in honour of 
Louis XIV., Louisiana. 

La Salle then returned to France and procured a new 1689. 
company, with a view of colonizing the country he had ^^eian- 
discovered, but failed, with his new recruits, to reach the fate of 
mouth of the Mississippi, and landed his dispirited com- ^^^^^^'^ 
pany on the coast of Texas, where they miserably perished, 
victims of the climate, with the exception of thirty-six 
men ; half of whom, with La Salle at their head, under- 
took to reach Canada by land; but only five of them 
11 



122 INDIAN WARS. 

Book u. returned, the intrepid commander having been murdered 
ch. 7. by two of his mutinous companions. Thus perished the 
^ jy first adventurers who sought to colonize Louisiana, and, 
1689. with them, the traces of even the forts which they had 

built. 
^„ Shortly after, the Canadians were involved in a war 

with the -^itli the Iroquois, and Montreal itself was attacked, and 
quois. lost two hundred of its defenders. Canada, though long 
planted, did not flourish. The colonists, exposed to the 
rigour of a cold climate, to a military despotism, and with- 
out the motives which called out the energies of their 
English neighbours, hardly numbered, in 1689, twelve 
thousand persons ; scarcely a twentieth part of the popu- 
lation of the English colonies at the time. 
Meed of And yet no small praise, after all, is due to the French 
praise. Canadians. Against a formidable confederacy of Indian 
tribes, they had explored the waters of the great western 
lakes ; they had navigated the Mississippi from the Falls 
of St. Anthony to the Gulf of Mexico; they had estab- 
lished successful missionary stations from Quebec to the 
shores of Lake Superior ; they had engrossed the most 
lucrative part of the fur trade ; they had established im- 
portant military posts ; and they claimed the whole eastern 
coast from the Kennebec to Hudson's Bay, part of New 
York, all of Acadie and Canada, the whole valley of the 
Mississippi, and the territory to the south-west as far as 
the Kio Bravo del Norte. Could France but have retained 
these extensive regions, the English dominion would have 
been restricted to those States which border on the Atlan- 
tic Ocean. But the jealousy of the English and of Eng- 
lish colonies would not allow them to acquiesce in this 
claim, and was destined to lead to future wars, and the 
complete suppression of French dominion in America. 



BOOK III. 



CHAPTER I. 

EARLY COLONIAL HISTORY. — INDIAN WARS. 

We have now seen how the various English colonies bk. in. 



were successfully planted on the eastern coast of North Ch. i. 

America, and alluded to the leading principles which led ^ ^ 

to their settlement. "We have considered some of the 1606 

influences which retarded, and some which facilitated their to 
growth; the various governments which coerced them, 



1658. 



and the conflicting religious opinions which distracted Gradual 
them. "We have examined them in detail, as they were ment 
gradually colonized, and the various evils to which the ^^^^^ 
early settlers were subjected; none of which, great as they 
were, paralyzed their energies, or destroyed their bright 
hopes. 

We are now compelled to consider their history in a 
more general manner, and omit allusion to many events, 
which, interesting to the colonists themselves, at an early 
period, have had no very marked efiect in the formation 
of national character and institutions. The twig was bent 
in the first half-century after it was planted, and, from the 
inclination it then received, the tree has grown. 

Still, there were from time to time great excitements, 
sometimes religious, sometimes political, which called out 
great energies, and which changed the ordinary current 

(123) 



124 GENERAL CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 

BK^m. of events. It therefore becomes us to mention those facts 
Ch. 1. and influences which changed public opinion, and contri- 
A. D. buted in a marked manner to elevate or depress society. 
1606 Some of these originated with the mother country, 
-lOQQ o^^^^s from colonial governors. At one time we observe 
the influence of foreign interference, and at another of 
vSw of ^gi^^tions resulting from domestic events. Conflicts with 
the CO- the Indians, religious delusions, English commercial re- 
strictions, and early contests for freedom, all had their effect 
on the welfare of the colonies. After the English Revolu- 
tion, the same events, in many instances, which created 
an excitement in New England, also affected the prospe- 
rity of Virginia. After that event, a more uniform 
policy was observable in all the relations between the 
English government and the colonies. They were re- 
garded in England as a distinct nation, more than before ; 
as composing a part of Great Britain itself, rather than 
the property of a few nobles and commercial companies. 
They were looked upon as communities bound to observe 
the laws of England, to be taxed like towns and cities at 
home for the support of the central government, and 
under obligation to take a part in the wars which deso- 
lated the continent of Europe. From the first they were 
dealt with unfairly. There was no justice or magnanimity 
in English rulers when American affairs were regarded. 
The colonies paid dearly for the protection afforded them. 
The people received but few privileges as English sub- 
jects, and all they gained was earned by their own enter- 
prise and intrepidity. 

The causes which promoted or retarded prosperity were 
both domestic and foreign — internal and external. Let 
us first consider the domestic history of the colonies. One 
of the most considerable of those events which affected 
the condition of the country was the occasional recurrence 



THE INDIANS. 125 

of Indian hostilities ; extending, at different times, from bk. in. 



Maine to South Carolina. Ch. i. 

Allusion has already been made to the native peculiar- x. d. 
ities of the Xorth American Indians, and to the different 1622. 
races which were scattered over the continent. We have ^^ 
also seen how they molested the Europeans " soon after "* * 
an invasion was made upon their hunting-grounds,'' and ^°<iia° 
from causes for which the aborigines were not always to ties, 
blame. The war which the Virginians carried on against 
the successors of Powhatan, and also the destruction of 
the Pequods in Connecticut, have been described in the 
colonization of the country. 

Had the various Indian tribes united on the first appear- want of 
ance of the European to expel him from the country he ^^^°^ 

among 

visited, they might have been successful. But they were the indi- 
incapable of concert, and were alienated from each other ^^' 
by mutual jealousies. They were almost constantly at 
war, and possibly, in the progress of ages, might have 
exterminated each other. Nor did they learn what might 
be useful to them from the invaders of their country. 
They copied the European only in his vices, and seemed 
to be hopelessly and irretrievably wedded to savage life. 

Still, they viewed the encroachments of the English Disgust 
on their hunting-grounds, and their superior power, with ^ ^® 
great disciuietude, and probably were never friendly since peans. 
they were punished for their first massacre on the James 
River — 1622, and since they were exterminated in the 
Pequod territory — 1636. They were only restrained by 
fear of their invaders from repeated and constant insur- 
rection. 

In 1644, the Virginians suffered severe losses from 1644. 
Indian hostilities, instigated by the aged Opecancanough, jj^^^j^. 
who had formed a scheme for the extermination of the ere in 
colonists. They were surprised as they were preparing ^H^ 



11 



126 INDIAN WAR IN VIRGINIA. 

Bg- ni. for the fast of Good Friday by a party of Indians, and 
Ch. 1. five hundred people were massacred. 
A. D. The details of the war have not been handed down. It 
1644. was, however, shorter than the previous one, when James- 
town would have been destroyed but for the admonition 
of a friendly Indian. The Powhatan confederacy was 
unsuccessful, and the natives either sunk into servile de- 
pendence, or dwindled away; unable to contend with 
white men in open hostility. 
1643. About this time the people of New Amsterdam became 
Indian i^^^olved in a war with the natives. The Raritans, a tribe 
hostui- on the west shore of the Hudson, were accused of haviner 

ties in ^ o 

New attacked a Dutch bark with the design of robbing it, and 
^°^^' also were suspected of stealing hogs from Staten Island. 
Accordingly, an expedition was sent out against them, and 
several warriors were barbarously killed. The Raritans 
naturally retaliated. Other causes also inflamed animosity 
on both sides. The Hackensacs became involved in the 
quarrel, against whom a party was led, and which resulted 
in a massacre of eighty Indians. Roused by injuries, 
eleven petty tribes united together against the Dutch, who 
had indiscreetly fanned the flames of war. The Indians 
were partially supplied with fire-arms, and were wrought 
up to the highest pitch of ferocity. The terrified colonists 
fled to New Amsterdam, and a fast was proclaimed. De 
Vries succeeded in procuring a temporary reconciliation, 
but fresh injuries provoked new hostilities. A tribe on 
the Hudson, north of the Highlands, plundered a Dutch 
canoe laden with furs, and the frontier settlements were 
again assailed. It was at this time that Mrs. Hutchinson, 
with all her family, were slain — 1643. The colonists 
made renewed preparations and undertook several expedi- 
tions. The Indian villages in various quarters were 
attacked and destroyed, and a large number of the war- 



INDIAN HOSTILITIES. 127 

riors killed, but not until the colony had suffered conside- bk. hi. 
rablj. Peace was restored in 1644. Ch. i. 

Indian hostilities, however, were desultory, and ill-con- I673. 
ducted, until the famous war broke out against the Nar- ^^^^ 
ragansetts in 1673. Except in the destruction of the gansett 
Pequods,the red men of New England had not materially 
diminished in numbers. But their lands had gradually 
fallen into the possession of the English. The curtailment 
of the hunting-grounds and the increase of colonial settle- 
ments at last led to a dangerous insurrection. 

None felt more keenly the growing power of the Eng- King 
lish than Pometacom, chief of the Wampanoags, who !!^^^'^.°^ 
still occupied the eastern section of Narragansett Bay. iiope. 
He was nephew and successor of Massasoit, who originally 
welcomed the pilgrims to Plymouth, and is best known as 
the King Philip of Mount Hope ; the most enterprising 
and sagacious Indian with whom the English were ever 
destined to contend. He was suspected of hostile designs, 
and had been compelled to deliver up his fire-arms and 
enter into humiliating stipulations. Some of his men 
were afterwards hung on suspicion of having committed 
a murder. He retaliated by plundering some houses near 
Mount Hope, in Bristol, and by killing several people in 
Swanzey. The colonists prepared for war. Philip and 
his warriors fled j and as the Narragansetts on the oppo- 
site side of the bay were suspected of giving them shelter, 
they were required to give pledges of peace. Philip, 
however, succeeded in making his escape, though hedged 
in with enemies, to the interior of Massachusetts, and 
united with the Nipmucks in preparing for more systematic 
hostilities. These Indians burned the village of Brook- ms rav- 
field, and, united with the natives on Connecticut River, ^^ue^ 
attacked Deerfield and Northfield and killed many of the ticut Ri- 
inhabitants. They were now more formidable than at an 



128 KING PHILIP'S WAR. 

bk. in. earlier period of the colony, since they had learned the 
Ch. 1. use of fire-arms, with which the colonists had indiscreetly 
j^ J) furnished them. The Indians did not venture to fight 
1675. openly, but in ambush; behind trees, and in dense 
thickets ; and therefore they were not so easily to be 
overcome. 
Battle of The English were driven to the necessity of defensive 
Brooic warfare. A magazine and garrison were established in Had- 
ley. Thither Captain Lathrop, with eighty picked men, 
proceeded with three thousand bushels of wheat. But before 
he arrived at Deerfield, at a stream called Bloody Brook, 
he was attacked by a large body of Indians, and was 
destroyed, with his whole company. Deerfield was aban- 
doned and burned. Springfield was attacked, but saved 
by timely assistance from Connecticut. 
Alarm The succcss of the Indians on the Connecticut encou- 
tfer^°^ raged those who inhabited the forests which skirted the 
towns. Merrimac ; for it cannot be supposed that the natives had 
been restrained from hostilities long before this (1675) 
except by fear. The frontier settlements in the neigh- 
bourhood of Boston were abandoned or destroyed. The 
Tarentans at the same time attacked the settlements in 
Maine and New Hampshire. All the various tribes had 
the same griefs and the same desire to exterminate their 
invaders. 
Destruc- The Narragausctts were the most powerful tribe of In- 
tion of (jians in New England, and had not, as yet, joined in hos- 
dians. tilities. But they were so generally suspected, that it 
was resolved by the colonists to make war on them as well 
as the Wampanoags and other tribes. A large force was 
accordingly raised, and all New England prepared for a 
desperate combat. The cold winter of 1675, when even 
swamps were frozen, made the Indian fortresses accessible 
to the colonists. The united forces, under the command 



THE NARRAQANSETT WAR. 129 

of Winslow, approached a swamp in the town of South bk. m. 
Kingston, where the Indians were entrenched in a strong Ch. i. 
fort. It was attacked, and, after a severe struggle, it fell a. d. 
into the hands of the assailants. Six hundred wigwams 1675. 
were destroyed, and the provisions of the Indians were 
burned. 

The assailants, however, suffered severely. Two hun- injurieB 
dred and thirty men were either killed or wounded, while ^"^^^ .*° 

*' ' ^ frontier 

most of the Indian warriors escaped. Infuriated by their towns, 
disasters, and suffering from famine, they recommenced 
hostilities with the utmost barbarity. They scattered { 

themselves along the frontier settlements, and inflicted all 
the injury in their power. Lancaster was burned. Med- 
field was half-destroyed, and Weymouth was attacked. 
Providence, too, was seriously injured. The whole colony 
of Plymouth was overrun. Houses were burned in 
almost every town. No one could venture out without 
danger of being destroyed. The colonists were filled with 
alarm. A general insurrection and union of the natives 
threatened every place with danger. Men, women and 
children perished by the bullets or the tomahawks of the 
Indians ; and some of the most flourishing of the settle- 
ments were abandoned. 

The dangers and sufferings of the English led to the League 
necessity of a general confederation, and the Indians were *?j.*^%jj 
now hunted like wild beasts, wherever the white man Indians, 
dared to penetrate. Famine and disease rapidly destroyed 
those whom war had spared. The Indians, at last, dis- 
couraged and broken, sought the most inaccessible retreats. 
Philip himself, no longer sheltered by the Indians who 
had committed such ravages on the settlements of Con- 
necticut river, fled to his native swamps. There he was Death of 
followed, attacked, and killed by Major Church, and his ^^^^'^" 
followers were either destroyed or taken prisoners. The 



130 WAR WITH THE SUSQUEHANNAS. 

BK.in. Wampanoags and Narragansetts suffered the fate of the 

Ch. 1. Pequods, and their country was annexed to Plymouth, 

A. D. and afterwards to Rhode Island. The few surviving 

1675. members of these unfortunate tribes migrated to the 

North and West, to inflame their brethren to future 

hostilities. 

-^ar Nearly cotemporary with King Philip's war in Massa- 

with the chusetts and Rhode Island, was that which was carried 

Susque- ' 

hannas. ou in Virginia, against the Susquehannas and other tribes, 
under the guidance of Nathaniel Bacon. Allusion has 
been made to these hostilities, so far as pertained to 
Bacon's rebellion, and but little more need here be said. 
For thirty years the Virginia Indians had maintained 
peace ; but the same causes which provoked the natives 
in New England, also operated at the South. The occa- 
sion of the war of which Bacon was the leader, was the 
attack of the plantations in Maryland by the Susquehan- 
nas. The cause, was the mutual hatred of the antago- 
nistic races, and the mutual injuries which had been 
inflicted. 
Their de- Like all Other contests with the Indians, those unfortu- 
tion*^ nate people were the principal sufferers. Those who were 
not exterminated, were sold as slaves; which fact shows 
the eagerness of the colonists for ofiensive war ; while the 
deserted Indian lands were vested in the several counties, 
and applied by them towards defraying the expenses of 
the war. 
Nature '^^^ colouics did uot again sufier from the Indians 
of In- until they were incited by their enemies among the French 
warfare, to attack the border settlements. Their incursions were 
unexpected and sudden, and marked by terrible excesses. 
There was no general combination of large bodies of war- 
riors, nor did they make any systematic attacks on consi- 
derable settlements. They fought in isolated bands, and, 



CHARACTER OF INDIAN WARFARE. 131 

when they had destroyed a village or solitary farm-house, ^^- ^^^- 
retreated again to their fastnesses, and reserved their ^^■^• 
strength for future barbarities. They could not easily be A. D. 
tracked or conquered. They watched the white man, and 1681. 
waited for an opportunity to seize him in the fields, or in Indian 
an unprotected house, as they hunted for the deer or the cruelty, 
beaver. 

I The mutual jealousy between the French and Eng- 1690. 
lish settlers increased the national antipathies, and the umonof 

o . ,, ., ^ . . , , French 

lormer were especially guilty oi instigating the savages and 
in Canada and in New York to commit deeds which ^^'^»'^- 
no ordinary warfare can justify. The French abso- 
lutely headed and guided the hostile natives in their 
savage incursions. In one of these, Schenectady, a vil- Scheneo 
lage on the Mohawk, west of Albany, was almost totally ^l^^ 
destroyed, 1690, and about sixty persons slain. Another 
party surprised Salmon Falls, a frontier village on the 
Piscataqua, killed most of the males, and led the women 
and children as captives into Canada. York was sur- 
prised by a party of French and Indians, and lost seventy- 
five of its inhabitants, while as many more were carried 
as prisoners to Canada. 

Seven years later, in 1697, a winter party of Indians 1697. 
attacked Haverhill and Boston ; and the people on the rears 
frontier were kept in constant alarm. At this period excited 

, , .by the 

were built those heavy log houses, as garrisons for pur- Indiana, 
poses of protection, some of which still remain. But 
hardly was the white man safe even within these impene- 
trable walls. The slightest cessation from his customary 
vigilance, any short indulgence from fancied security, 
exposed him to the tomahawk of foes who never slept. 
He never ventured out into his field without his gun. He 
was obliged to clear away the beautiful trees which sur- 
rounded and ornamented his house, for fear that Indians 



132 LEGENDS OF INDIAN CRUELTY. 

Bk.ni. might lurk behind them while he laboured for his bread. 
Ch. 1, In every part of New England, legends are handed down 
A. D. among the people of the sufferings and the heroism of 
1697. their fathers. Women were known to defend themselves 
with courage and success, in sudden attacks, when their 
brothers and husbands were absent from their homes. 
Hannah The intrepidity of Hannah Dustin surpassed that of Jael 
and Judith of old ; for she, when taken by a party of 
Indians, succeeded in killing the whole of them with her 
own hands, in the dead of night, when they were over- 
come with liquor and sleep. 
Hatred Amid such dangers and sufferings were the colonists 
of the^^ trained. But Indian hostilities, in spite of the superior 
Indians, strength of the whites, retarded prosperity, and filled the 
most prosperous settlements with alarm. The mere name 
of Indian conjured up fear and hatred; and the defence- 
less and the timid were frightened at the word, even as 
Saracen mothers once quailed before the name of Richard 
Coeur de Lion. 
Peculiar It IS unnecessary to detail the injuries which the In- 
rities of (jj^ns inflicted at a subsequent period, until the final con- 
warfare, quest of Canada by the English. There is great uniformity 
in the history of Indian hostilities, marked by treachery, 
cunning, cruelty, and barbarity. Moreover, Indian war- 
fare, after the colonies were involved in the great contest 
between England and France, is closely connected with 
intercolonial wars, and will be further alluded to when 
these are treated. It is time to consider other events 
which affected the prosperity and tranquillity of the 
colonies. 



CHAPTER II. 

EELIGIOUS DISSENSIONS, DELUSIONS, AND 
PERSECUTIONS. 

It seems odd to prefix a chapter with such a title, when Bs.in. 
we remember the claims which the colonists, and especially Ch. 2. 
the Puritans, made to intellectual light and religious tole- a. d. 
ration. It would seem that men with their experience 1650. 
and sufferings, driven away from their homes by perse- Natural 
cuting bigots, would be singularly free from the faults J^^^"^ 
which they denounced in others, and would be bound reiigioua 
together by the bonds of charity and love. Doubtless jance^ 
there was great affection between those who thought alike 
on all the great questions of the day ; but, unfortunately, 
they did not all think alike, and, as they were all earnest 
and ardent in defence of their peculiar views, strife and 
disunion were inevitable. It is a great infirmity, even in 
noble minds, to be inclined to religious intolerance. It 
were a mistake to suppose that antipathy to those who 
differ from us is ordinarily confined to the narrow and the 
weak. Intolerance is in human nature itself, and gene- 
rally displays itself with the most bitterness where there 
are strong passions and warm feelings. It does not come 
from the head, but from the heart. There will be no 
warmth of temper displayed in discussing mathematical 
truths ; for these appeal purely to the reason. But when 
moral and political questions are discussed, then senti- 
ments of affection or interest are brought out, and this 
12 (13S) 



134 INTOLERANCE OF THE HUMAN MIND. 

Bs.in. coolness vanishes. Even the strongest minds may exhibit 
Ch. 2. the greatest love or animosity, since strong passions fre- 
intoie- quently accompany powerful intellectual convictions. Thus 
Sdver- Burke could never forgive Fox, with whom he had been 
^' in the closest intimacy, when the latter advocated the 
cause of the French Revolution. Thus, Dr. Johnson 
could never speak decently of either dissenters or repub- 
licans. "With both these great men, with all their learn- 
ing and wisdom, their passions prevented the unbiassed 
judgment of their reason, because, with them, passion 
was as strong as their reason. Hence, advocates who are 
successful and powerful should not be selected as judges, 
because the same qualities which make them potent plead- 
ers, unfit them for cool and impartial sifters of truth. 
Passion is one of the grand elements of eloquence } but 
passion is at war with reason. On this principle it is 
unwise to take advice from sanguine friends ; for they see 
everything as they wish to have it, through the medium 
of excited feelings. It is much better to trust to the 
judgment of cold, calculating, passionless men, who do 
not enter warmly into our plans. 
Ardent Now, the Puritans, as a body, were men of remarkably 
o7the^ strong passions and ardent religious sentiments, which 
Pivri- ^gre united with great intellectual strength. They felt 
strongly on all moral and religious questions which were 
agitated in their day. They could not be cool and calm, 
if they would. They were jealous for the glory of God, 
and the undimmed lustre of their system of truth. Any 
departure from the principles which they honoured so 
profoundly, seemed to derogate from the glory of God and 
the welfare of the Church. Hence, they did not stop to 
reason coldly when the temple of truth was invaded by 
audacious and unholy hands. They would drive out the in- 
truders with whips and cords — they would eject them from 



THE PURITANS NO EXCEPTION. 135 

their abodes — from the precincts of the colony itself. BK.iir. 
They would have nothing to. do with them; for they Ch. 2. 
sought, as it appeared to them, to bring dishonour on Puritan 
what was most sacred and sublime. Hence, they did not J-ancr 
scruple to banish the Baptists and Quakers, in spite of 
unexceptionable morality and inoffensive lives, because 
they blended certain doctrines with their system of truth 
which were regarded as dangerous to the Church of 
Christ. Hence, they had no reproaches of conscience in 
awarding to witches the punishments which their age pre- 
scribed. They abominated the idea that ignorant and 
self-sufficient fanatics could be favoured with the special 
illumination of the Deity, when the Bible was in every 
hand. They were shocked that any persons could have 
the audacity to communicate with the agents of Satanic 
power. They did not stop to reason. They acted, with- 
out reasoning, from the prejudices of their age, and from 
the education they had received. It is no argument 
against their superior culture, that the people in Virginia, 
who did not make high pretensions, should have been free 
irom similar delusions and animosities. The Virginians 
were thinking of other things — of cultivating tobacco, 
and studying their physical prosperity. Those men who, 
in our days, are zealously embarked in trade, politics, or 
j)leasure, are not the men who feel strongly and act vigor- 
ously respecting dangerous moral innovations. Those 
who are infinitely their superiors in culture, in genius, 
and in heart, may exhibit passions and weaknesses of 
which their inferiors will never be accused. 

And these truths should be borne in mind when we The pu- 
discuss the character of c;reat men, or unfold the relations "♦""'^ 
of great events. It is only in this light that the conduct ouiy a 
of the Puritans may bo palliated for their participation f^fi"^! 
in religious persecution. Let not great historical facts be '^^y- 



136 PERSECUTION OF THE QUAKERS. 

^^- ^n- denied. Let them be admitted clieerfully by all. And 
Ch. 2. then let us view acts which derogate from the fame of 
A. D. the good and great in the light of true philosophy and 
1656. Christian candour, and we shall ordinarily see great pal- 
liatives. None are indeed perfect. We are called to 
lament the follies of those we honour. But, with all 
their follies and mistakes, we see nevertheless a great dif- 
ference between them and those who are more ftiultless, 
but less glorious. 

I have already shown the lamentable delusion which 
led to the banishment of Roger Williams, and the found- 
ation of Rhode Island. The next marked outburst of 
popular prejudice, and which can never be justiiBed, was 
in reference to the Quakers. It commenced in 1656, and 
extended, at intervals, for many years. It was not con- 
fined to Massachusetts, but equally disgraced Virginia and 
other colonies. 
Quakers Allusion has already been made to the celebrated 
cuted fo^^der of the Society of Friends, and also to their doc- 
trines, which contained some principles for the first time 
advanced in the world, and which have contributed, in no 
inconsiderable manner, to the progress of truth and civili- 
ization. But there were some ideas of more questionable 
value, which were advanced with presumptuous audacity, 
and were exceedingly ofiensive to the men of their gene- 
ration. The notion that the Bible was a dead-letter book, 
unless illuminated by the Inner Light, thus recognizing 
special divine revelations, and placing them above the 
authority of the Scriptures, was repugnant to the Puri- 
tans, who placed the authority of the Scriptures above all 
other authority. And when this idea, and other new doc- 
trines equally obnoxious, were advocated with wild enthu- 
siasm, and with a recklessness inconsistent with the re- 
spect which seemed due to both rulers and priests, accom- 



EXPULSION OF THE QUAKERS, 137 

panied with extravagance and indecorum of manners, yea, Bk.iii. 
even undisguised indecency, hard to be reconciled with cl.T^ 
the calm and rational deportment of the present followers a. d. 
of Fox, the indignation and disgust of the colonists were 1656. 
excited to the highest degree. For Quakers, male and Quakers 
female, in some instances, not only committed acts which ^"^ ^''^^ 

Eng- 

would now, in any civilized country, subject them to land, 
imprisonment in the house of correction, but manifested 
utter contempt for courts of justice, titles of honour, and 
the ordinary laws of society. Their reputation bad pre- 
ceded them to New England, and, when they arrived, there 
were such strong prejudices against them, that they were 
immediately arrested and examined to see whether they 
bore any bodily marks of witchcraft. And when such 
indications were not found, they were sent back to Rhode 
Island, from which colony they came. 

A law was passed, sentencing them to fine, imprison- Banish- 
ment, and exile. The four associated colonies adopted ^"^^ 

^ ^ of the 

this law, and urged Ilhode Island to do the same. But Quakers 
the Assembly wisely regarded any punishment for reli- 
gious opinions as inconsistent with their principles, and a 
^'iolation of their charter. The few Quakers who had 
come to these distant settlements to propagate their doc- 
trines, were not content to remain in Rhode Island, and 
were resolved to be martyrs rather than remain in rest 
and quietude. Accordingly, they soon returned to Mas- 
sachusetts. There they were joined by Mary Clarke, the 
" wife of a tailor in London, who announced that she 
had forsaken her husband and six children in order to 
convey a message from heaven to the people of New Eng- 
hind." They immediately raised their voices to abuse 
everything especially revered in social life, or in the ordi- 
nances of the churches. They were again seized, flogged, 
and dismissed with yet more severe threats. Still they 
12 * 



138 FORTITUDE OF THE QUAKERS. 

Bs.ni. returned with increasing numbers^ and succeeded in mak- 

Ch. 2. ing converts and exciting compassion. The magistrates 

A, D. of Massachusetts, exasperated at the repetition of their 

1658. extravagances and the influence of their principles, intro- 

Penai duccd, in 1658, a law into the Assembly denouncing the 

laws. punishment of death upon all Quakers returning from 

banishment. Although many opposed this sanguinary 

and illiberal proposition, it was nevertheless carried, and, 

in the two following years, four persons were put to death, 

among whom was Mary Dyer, once a conspicuous disciple 

of 31 rs. Hutchinson. 

The fortitude with which these persecuted people met 
their fate, and the compassion which their sufferings occa- 
sioned, alarmed the magistrates ; and penal rigours were 
relaxed, and continued to be relaxed, as the Quakers 
became more orderly, or their principles were better 
understood. 
1688 ^hen William and Mary were seated on the throne, 
Toiera- more liberal views were also embraced in the colonies 
deTwu- i*6specting religious toleration, which was finally extended 
liamand to all Christians excepting Catholics, whose principles, it 
was maintained, so openly advocated the suppression of all 
intellectual independence, that, in self-defence, the Pro- 
testants, of nearly every party, felt themselves justified in 
withholding the privileges which themselves claimed. 
lgY4^ The intolerance shown to Catholics, partly the result 
Tntoie- of traditionary hatred, was most unjust in Maryland. 
Siting ^^^^^ province had been settled by them, and thJy had 
Catho- ever exercised the greatest practical liberality. But when 
dissenters from their faith settled among them, for they 
were not excluded, and outnumbered them, they subjected 
the Catholics to persecution, forbade the celebration of the 
mass in public, 1704, and deprived them of the right of 
suflfrage. These disabilities were at length removed; but 



SALEM WITCHCRAFT. 139 

in several States, Catholics, and Catholics alone, of the BK.in. 
Christian sects, were ineligible to any high civil office. Ch. 2. 

But the most remarkable exhibition of superstitious a. d. 
delusion and hateful severity which disgraced the early 1692. 
colonists, was in reference to witches. It was supposed gaiem 
that certain unhappy people, chiefly old women, had made "^i^'^^*^^. 
a covenant with the 'devil for the tormenting of human 
souls — a notion, however, not peculiar to New Eng- 
land, but which was common to England and various 
parts of Europe. Some of the gi-eatest men of the age 
were firm believers in witchcraft, sorcery, and magic ; and 
severe penal enactments were made against those who 
were supposed to practise those arts, in every country in 
Christendom. Henry VIII. made witchcraft a capital 
offence; and many persons lost their lives for this im- 
puted crime, even during the Commonwealth. 

The Puritans were not exempt from the superstition of Puritan 
their times, and they also punished witchcraft with death, ^^"°J°' 
since they regarded it as a voluntary compact between the craft, 
devil and evil-minded persons. And the prevailing delu- 
sion was stimulated by Increase Mather, and his son Cot- 
ton Mather, clergymen of Boston, and greatly distinguished 
for learning and sanctity, although their piety bore a 
close resemblance to Catholic asceticism. The latter per- 
son even took a child into his house who was supposed to 
be bewitched, that he might have an opportunity of stu- 
dying Satanic influences; and the girl made a dupe of 
him, and furnished him with materials for a book on 
^' Witchcrafts and Possessions," which had great influence 
on the common mind. 

The delusion spread from Boston to Salem. Children 
wore seen to perform pranks which could not have hap- 
pened but for the agency of infernal spirits. The greatest 
pains were taken to discover those who had bewitched 



liO ALARM OF THE ENLIGHTENED. 

bk. iil tbem. Towns appointed committees for the purpose, and 
Ch. 2. magistrates zealously lent their aid. Examinations took 
A. D. place of accused persons in the churches, where were 
1688. assembled the chief people of the towns. On the most 
Cruel- trivial and absurd accusations, respectable people were 
?Vd' ^^i"6sted, tried, found guilty, and executed. The governor 
on sup- of the colony, Phipps, took an active part, 1692, in the 
Shes. prosecutions. And he was sustained by the General 
Court. So powerful was the delusion, that it was hazard- 
ous to express doubts in reference to the accused. The 
disbelief in witches was itself almost tantamount to an 
alliance with evil spirits. The calm and wise dared not ex- 
press their convictions. Those whom the afflicted accused, 
either in malice or recklessness, were looked upon as 
damned by the credulous crowd, and those who stimu- 
lated their folly ; and it was in vain to seek escape, except 
by confession of the crime. The jails were full of prison- 
ers; new accusations increased, every day; alarm and 
terror filled all minds. Neither age nor sex was spared. 
Evil spirits were supposed to hover over the land. Ma- 
gistrates were even condemned, and a clergyman by the 
name of Burroughs was executed. 
Keao- At last, pcrsons of such high character and influence 

were accused, that the eyes of the community were opened. 
Clergymen and magistrates of the highest social position 
and moral worth, became implicated. The Greneral Court 
was alarmed, as well as the more judicious of the people. 
A clergyman of Andover had the courage to remonstrate 
publicly against the prevailing delusion, and the special 
court which had been established for the trial of accused 
persons was abrogated. Finally, King William vetoed 
the witchcraft act, and, by order of the governor, all pri- 
soners were released, 1693, but not until more than 
twenty innocent persons had been executed, and fifty-five 



END OF THE DELUSION. 141 

tortured until an acknowledgment of guilt had been bk.iit, 
wrung from them. Ch. 2. 

With the passing away of this delusion, which pre- a. d. 
vailed most extensively in Salem, a decline was also per- 1693. 
ceptible in the religious ardour of the colonists, and their Decline 
views were modified respecting a theocratic government. ^^.J^^. 
The great peculiarities of Puritanism were no longer seen ive fea- 
in their ancient force. Latitudinarianism became preva- p^rit^u- 
lent and fashionable. The half-way covenant was adopt- ism. 
ed. Colman in Boston, and Stoddard in Northampton, 
even admitted all persons to the communion and the pri- 
vilege of church membership, who were not immoral in 
their lives. The ministers no longer pretended to advise 
and control the executive and legislative governments ; 
and Cambridge itself, much to the mortification of Mather 
and the members of the old theocratic school, presently 
passed under the control of the latitudinarian party, which 
went by the name of Arminian, and which insinuated, if 
it did not openly profess, a leaning towards Socinianism. 



^:^?^^^S;^?s$?^ 




Oliver Cromwell. 



142 



CHAPTER III. 

ENGLISH COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS. 

Thus far, we have considered chiefly the internal 
history of the colonists; their struggles, their contests, bk. ni. 
their opinions, and their delusions. It is well, now, to ch. 3. 
turn our eyes to the influence which English legislation 
had on their prosperity as merchants, manufacturers, and 1(540. 
ao-riculturists. All the colonies recognized, to a greater ^ _ 

to o 7 & Influ- 

or less degree, their dependence on the mother country, enco of 
They were governed hy English laws. They yielded ^^^J^^ 
homage to English governors. Their charters established tion on 
a close connection between them and the English govern- nies. 
ment. It was only when they were feeble and insignifi- 
cant that they escaped the notice of kings and Parliaments, 
and enjoyed an unrestricted freedom. As they became 
flourishing they were subjected to the influence of English 
legislatures, and the more more powerful they became the 
more they felt the yoke. 

Commercial restrictions were imposed as early as the 
colonies promised to enrich the proprietors. The first were Legisia- 
imposed on Viro-inia, when tobacco became a considerable ^'"'^ ^^ 

. . spoctiiij? 

article of export — during the reign of Charles I. In tobHcco. 
1G50, the Parliament, after its triumph over the king, 
passed a law that foreign ships should not enter any of 
the ports in Barbadocs, Antigua, Bermudas, and Virginia, 
much to the detriment of the latter colony, which sold 
great quantities of tobacco to Dutch traders. 

Cromwell, still more than Charles I., was induced to 

(14.3; 



144 NAVIGATION ACTS. 

Bk. in. restrict colonial commerce, in order to confirm the mari- 
Ch. 3. time power of his country ; and especially when he per- 
1651. ceived that Holland was engrossing so large a share of the 

trade of the world. 
Naviga- The first navigation act was carried through Parliament 
tion act. ^^ j^-g JQfluQQ^jg^ 1651, by which the commerce between 
England and her colonies, as well as the rest of the world, 
was to be conducted by English ships alone. This act 
was passed, however, not so much with a view of absorb- 
ing the wealth of Virginia, as to cripple the commerce of 
the Dutch ; in consequence of which a naval war followed 
between England and Holland, in which Blake, De Ruyter, 
and Von Tromp gained such lasting laurels. 
1660. The British merchants, however, were not patisfied with 
NaTigar the dcsirc of Cromwell to make England the emporium of 
of trade, but also claimed an entire monopoly of colonial 

Oiaries cQ^jmerce. And, soon after Charles II. wa^ restored to 
the throne, a new navigation act was passed, 1660, by 
Parliament, which gave to them all they desired. It was 
decreed that no commodities should be impoi-ted into any 
British settlement, or exported from thence, but in British 
vessels, navigated by English sailors ; and that no valu- 
able and staple products, the growth of the colonies, 
should be shipped thence to any other country than Eng- 
land. Nor was it allowed to import into the colonies 
any European commodities which were not laden in Eng- 
land and transport'cd in English vessels. 
Depend- Nothing, it is evident, could be more exclusive than 
thrcoio- ^^^^ ^^*? ^y which the colonies were kept in a state of 
Dies on complete mercantile dependence on the mother country, 
land. and by which England alone was benefited. But Parlia- 
ment was not content with this, but prosecuted a domi- 
neering policy, and assumed the prerogative of regulating 
the trade of the several colonies with each other. 



RESENTiMENT OF THE COLONIES. 145 

This act, in England, was regarded as a masterpiece of bk. nr. 
commercial wisdom and political sagacity. In America Ch. 3. 
it excited indignation and disgust. It was plainly an inva- a. d. 
sion of the rights of the settler. It tended to make them 1668. 
slaves. It had in it nothing paternal, nothing protective ; its in- 
but a cold, calculating, mean way of enriching the mother J"^*^"® 
country at the expense of the colonies. There might be puiari- 
some excuse in the policy, so far as it was intended to be ^' 
conducted against foreign nations; for England had a 
right, like China, to make its own regulations of trade in 
intercourse with foreigners ; but the Americans were not 
foreigners. They were not regarded as such, but as the 
children of Great Britain, exposed to peculiar dangers, and 
in peculiar need of indulgence and protection. 

In none of the colonies did this tyrannical system exact Resent- 
greater resentment than in Virginia, " where the larger ^r^[.^^ 
commerce of the people, their pre-eminent loyalty, and ^i^- 
the recent liberal forbearance of Cromwell, made the bur- 
den more severe and exasperating." No sooner was the 
Navigation Act promulgated in Virginia, than the colo- 
nies warmly remonstrated against it as a grievance, and 
petitioned for relief. Charles paid no attention to the 
state of angry feeling, but rather resolved to enforce the 
most vigorous measures, in which he was seconded by the 
Parliament. The provincial authorities then evaded the 
conditions of the act, and winked at noncompliance ; which 
called out a royal mandate commanding the provincial 
governor to enforce the law. 

Although a clandestine intercourse was kept up with ciandes- 
the Dutch on Hudson River, still the effect of the act ""^ "'" 

' ter- 

was to depreciate the value of tobacco — the staple of the course, 
colony, since it was now confined to one market. The 
colonists remonstrated, and feebly retaliated. Statutes 
were enacted to restrain the culture of tobacco and intro- 
13 



1-1:6 DISAITECTION THROUGHOUT THE COLONIES. 

J"'^- ni. duce new staples instead, but without success. The great 
Ch. a effect of the Navigation Act was to weaken those senti- 
A. D. ments of lojaltj which the Yirginians had ever peculiarly 

16GS. cherished, and prepare the way for future rebellion. 

Xavica- The Navigation Act was not so injurious in it5 effect on 

tion Act ^-^Q northern colonies as on the southern durino^ the sev- 

partK'u- ° 

iiiriy ia- eutecuth centuTY, but ultimately it caused great disaffec- 
to^vi^i tion from Massachusetts to South Carolina. The colonies, 
Ilia. ia defence, either imposed export duties on goods shipped 
in British vessels, or made exceptions in favour of colonial 
ships, which called cut the complaints of British mer- 
chants and manufacturers to the Board of Trade, and led 
to incessant difficulties. It was the constant policy of 
England to prevent the growth or manufacture of any 
article in America which formed a staple in the mother 
country. "Wool, for instance, in the seventeenth century, 
was the great article which was raised by British farmers 
for purposes of manufacture and foreign trade. Hence 
1699. Parliament passed an act in 1699 prohibiting wool, or any 
manufacture made or mixed with it, which was produced 
in America, from being transported from even one colony 
to another, or even to be laden on any ship, vessel, cart, 
p^ or horse, under any pretence. All manufactures were 

and op- discouraged which could be furnished by British mer- 
orthe" chants, which of course reduced the colonies to great 
"''°" dependence, keeping them constantly poor, and in debt to 
the mother country ; for the export of raw materials, such 
as timber, pitch, and tobacco, never could produce enough 
to furnish the colonies with any except the coarsest and 
meanest fabrics, and these only to a limited extent. None 
but the wealthy could afford to wear silks or fine woollens; 
and tea, coffee, and other luxuries, were sold at exorbitant 
prices which amounted to a prohibition, except among 
f.ivcured individuals. The colonists were obliged to spin 



mstii. 



STrT.n>H POUCY OP KSGLAXD. 147 

and vea^e thdr own vool and Imoi in their own houses, bx- nr. 
or go imp e rfe cdy dad. Enoi the prodaction of iron, at Oi^ 3. 
one tinie, 1721, was prohifaifted in die eolonies; and tliis ^, d, 
pwAiKtintt woald have heen enfimed, had it not heen for 1721. 
the sedoos leBfonstianoe of edonial agents. Not a for- 
naee eonid be eroded in Ameriea — not a flo^ of sheep 
oonld be laised — notadiip eoold be built — hardly a 
blad^smith's shop eoold be eonskiweted, without calling 
£Hth the dokfiil eoaplaint at some interested British 
manv&ctaier or medianic to the Board of Trade. The 
neroantik jealousy whid& the mother eoontij oonstantly 
erineedy was eq[Bal]^ sordid and angomoiis. 

The eokniesy however, in the early p^iod of their his- tria 
tocy, £d not di^mte the li^it of the British Parliament [ 
to impose restzktians on their eommeice. They moreiy 
remonstrated, and, when their remoostiances were of no 
aTail, retaliated in some lieeble fi^m,' or contented them- 
sel\es with the expr^sifm <^ displeasure. They looked 
upon thenwrhreg as a part of the Biinsh injure, and Par- 
liament as die supreme aradi<8ity. It was not until Great 
Britain proceeded to ^*'g'g^**^ on the gOTcmment of die 
colonieB, as well as on eonmeiee and indostry, that the 
Gfiiit of ind^Kndoiee was swikeued. sn-i the great rehek 
lion took 



org. 



CHAPTER IV. 

POPULAR DISCONTENTS, AND EARLY CONTESTS WITH 
GOVERNORS. 

bk. in. Hardly had the colonists escaped from the influenco 
ch. 4. of tyranny and persecution, both civil and religious, in 
Com- England, and established themselves in their new abodes, 
of^ro*ai ^^^^^^ *^^y began to be jealous of the authority of their 
govern- rulers and governors in America. In nearly every colony, 
the people were desirous of greater privileges, as they 
increased in numbers and power. No matter whether 
governors were appointed by kings, by parliaments, by 
absolute proprietaries, by corporations, or by the suffrages 
of the people themselves, they found increasing obstacles 
in the exercise of their functions. There was always 
some object of popular complaint — some struggle between 
those who ruled, and those who were ruled. Either tax- 
ation, or English legislation, or royal encroachments, or 
the arbitrary rule of governors, or restricted franchise, or 
interference with religious and social rights, were subjects 
of complaint and resistance. The people did not quietly 
and permanently acquiesce even in compacts and arrange- 
ments with which they were at first contented. The same 
disquietude, unrest, and discontent, which have ever 
marked nations and individuals alike in the most favoured 
and the most unfortunate situations, equally characterized 
our ancestors. It seems to be one of the laws of progress 

(148) 



SUBJECTS OF DISCONTENT. 149 

that discontents and agitations should arise ; for surely bk. ni. 
there could be no advance if men were uniformly content- ch. 4. 
ed with their lot. No state of society is perfect. There 
is no situation without glaring evils, however desirable, or 
however praised. 

Favoured as all the colonies were, in respect to govern- rigcon- 
ment, from the very first, and in every part of the coun- ^^^ °^ 
try, when compared with the nations of the old world, pie with 
there were everywhere causes of complaint. The great uation 
contest of all time was eroino; on between the rich and the ^^'^ p'"^" 

Tileges. 

poor — between the privileged and the more unfortunate 
classes. In the forests of America, as in every other part 
of the world, and in all ages, aristocracy and democracy 
conflicted. The rich wished to perpetuate the advantages 
they had gained by their talents or industry — the learned 
and dignified looked down on the pretensions of the ignorant 
and base — magistrates aimed to strengthen the arms of 
power — and those who had nothing to lose sought, by 
commotion and agitation, to overturn existing institutions, 
and, in the conflict of parties and sects and interests, to 
elevate their own social position, and grasp privileges 
which had ever been denied them. Democratic as were Progress 
the early settlers in comparison with Europeans, the great of demo- 
body of them grew still more democratic every day in the 
wilderness; and the tendency of American society, from 
the first planting of the colonics, has been continually to 
the increase of democratic power. Every change of go- 
vernment, every revolution, and every great social excite* 
ment, have contributed to raise the mass of the people in 
their aspirations, self-respect, and self-sufficiency, if not in 
real virtue and intelligence, as must of course be the case 
where the abstract principles of universal liberty are 
generally advocated, and form the basis of political insti- 
tutions. 

13* 



cracy. 



150 COMPLAINTS OP VIRGINIANS. 

BK.in. The most aristocratic of all the colonies was Virginia; 

Ch. 4. but even the aristocrats of Virginia, so loyal in their 

A. D. professions, and so attached to kings and parliaments, did 

1660 not acquiesce in restrictions on their commerce, and loudly 

*^ complained when Charles II. prevented the free exporta- 
tion of tobacco to any other country than England. They 

Resist- resisted royal commissioners and royal governors, and 

ance to '^ vf o ^ 

royal go- showcd a Spirit of disaffection by no means agreeable to 
vernors. j^^^gg jj They claimed the right of nominating their 
own treasurer under William III., at a time when the 
governor controlled the army, the revenue, the interpreta- 
tion of the law, the administration of justice, and the 
Church. They refused to contribute for the defence of 
the colonies against France, when required by the king. 
They resisted the demands of the governor, whenever 
such demands seemed against the interests of the colony; 
and the governors were obliged, in their quarrels, to resort 
to dissolutions of the Assembly. They even alleged, in 
1718, that Parliament could not levy any tax on them 
without the consent of the General Assembly. 
jeai- In Massachusetts, the struggles of the people against 

ousyof arbitrary power, and their jealousy of royal governors, 
trates in wcrc Still uiorc marked, since the great body of the people 
«hu-^^' were more democratic in their sympathies, and intelli- 
«etts. gence and wealth more equally diffused. As early as 
1632 1640, the freemen had shown their jealousy of magistrates 
to by declining to re-elect them more than one or two years 
1731. -Q succession, for fear that they would aspire to perpetual 
authority. In 1641, they prepared a body of laws in 
which their interests were carefully guarded. Even the 
excellent Governor Winthrop was impeached, and was 
obliged to defend himself, in 1645, before the magistrates, 
deputies, and an assembly of the people, from the charge 
of having abused his authority. 



^ GENERAL DISCONTENT. 151 

They subsequently treated the commissioners whom bk.iii. 
Charles II. sent over, on his restoration, with marked Ch. 4. 
discourtesy ; and such was their resistance to the mother a, d_ 
country, when it attempted to enforce the Navigation 1665 
Acts, that their charter was taken away. They refused *o 
to pay the taxes which Andros, the royal governor, im- 
posed when the charter was forfeited, and finally rose up ^°^^^^,^ 
against him and imprisoned him when news arrived of the Temors. 
second English revolution. And when Bellamont was 
governor, in 1698, the General Court would not allow 
him to carry out his instructions, and jealously insisted 
upon greater liberties. The Legislature of Massachusetts 
even once resorted to the extreme measure of stopping 
supplies when its petitions were disregarded by the king, 
in 1731, so that no public oflficer received any pay for 
more than two years. And, indeed, down to the period 
preceding the American Revolution, Massachusetts, from 
time to time, resisted all encroachments on its liberties, 
and the royal governors were unable to carry out their 
plans. 

The same jealousy of power was seen in nearly all the General 
other colonies, no matter on what principles they were facuon" 
founded. As the population increased, difficulties with of the 
proprietaries and governors increased also. The people with go- 
always had a great reluctance to pay quit-rents to propri- ^™^ 
etaries, whether in Carolina, Maryland, Pennsylvania, or 
New York. And they all alike resisted the enforcements 
of the acts of trade. They all alike rebelled against op- 
pressive governors. Even the people of Pennsylvania 
encroached on the private rights of the generous founder 
of their colony, and he found it wise to grant such privi- 
leges as they desired; and, before his death, almost a 
pure democracy was founded. But even these did not 
content the settlers. Constant collisions between the 



152 OBNOXIOUS GOVERNORS. 

^^- ^"- proprietary, as owner of unappropriated territory, and the 
Ch. 5. people, eager to enlarge their freeholds, took place. At 
A. D. the death of Penn, the executive was dependent on the 
1691. people for its support, and all subordinate executive 
Affairs ofl&cers wcre elected by them. The judiciary also was 
syiva-^"^ fettered by the people, and all legislation originated with 
nia, them. 

And in But in noue of the colonies was resistance to royal 
York, power more marked than in New York ; and in none was 
it more necessary. It was early seen in the most stub- 
born violation of the Navigation Acts, and in the resolu- 
tions passed by the Colonial Assembly in 1691, in which 
it was asserted that no tax whatever could be levied on 
the colony without the consent of the Legislature. But 
it was during the administration of Lord Cornbury that 
the Legislature showed the greatest courage, which indeed 
almost amounted to audacity; and Queen Anne was 
obliged to remove from office the obnoxious governor who 
ruled the province in her name. Of all the representa- 
tives of royalty in America, Lord Cornbury, grandson of 
Lord Chancellor Clarendon, was the most contemptible 
and the most oppressive. Happily, however, for the 
colonies, the administration of such men as Cornbury, 
Andros, and Dudley, fanned the spirit of resistance, and 
led to self-reliance. 
Prepara- Thus Were the people of the various colonies preparing 
futur^ themselves for future independence. Thus were demo- 
indepen- cratic Sentiments gradually gaining ground. Thus was 
hatred of English taxation silently engendered. The 
hardy colonists, accustomed to toil, educated in the school 
of self-reliance, and conscious of their strength, felt, for 
half a century before they dreamed of independence, that 
they already constituted a great nation, destined to illus- 
trious deeds. 



PREPARATIONS FOR INDEPENDENCE. 153 

But this independence to which they so nobly aspired, bk. ni. 
and this greatness which they were destined to realize, Ch. 5. 
were not to be obtained until they had measured their a. D. 
strength with most desperate enemies in the field, and 1691. 
had acquired the valuable instructions of experience. It position 
was necessary that they should more fully learn the spirit J*J^^^^ 
of Indian warfare, and the military tactics of European 
foes. The great contests of European monarchs were ex- 
tended even to the shores of the New "World, and the 
hardy colonists were reluctantly embroiled in the strife 
of kings. The Indians were incited, by French arts, to 
more powerful combinations, and encroachments were 
made by rival colonists on the territories of each other. 
Indian and French wars form no inconsiderable part of 
colonial history during the first half of the 18th century, 
which it is now time to present. 




Lou. E. from Greeuwich 



CHAPTER V. 

EARLY INTERCOLONIAL WARS. 

Great Britain exercised an influence on the colonies bk. iir. 
not only by attempting to enforce the acts of Parliament Cb 5. 
respecting trade, and by imposing upon them tyrannical ^ jy 
governors, but also by involving them in her wars with 1688. 
European powers. 

William III. brought with him into England that in- Jeaious- 
tcnse hatred of Louis XIV. which had characterized him as ^^^^j^ ® 
Prince of Orange. The recollection of the injuries which and 

. En2;li.«h 

Holland had received from the modern Nebuchadnezzar, and tow"aids 
his unscrupulous efforts to subvert the civil and religious lib- *^® 
crties of Europe, incessantly haunted the mind of William. 
And his antipathy was also shared by his new subjects, who 
both feared and hated the French king, not only because 
he aimed to destroy the balance of European power, but 
because he persecuted the Protestants. England, more- 
over, was jealous of French ascendency in the politics of 
Europe, and of the efforts which France made to extend 
manufactures and commerce, those branches of industry 
which she herself wished to monopolize. Not least in 
the scale of these aggressions were the projects of the 
French to engross the fisheries, and secure their ascend- 
ency on the American continent. 

It was for these reasons that England maintained a des- 
perate contest with France, with but little interruption, 
during the reigns of William and of Anne, until Louis 
XIV. was completely humbled by the victories of Marl- 
borough. 

(155) 



156 HOSTILITY OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 

bk. III. The English colonies entered into the feelings of the 
Ch. 5. mother country, and made great exertions to resent the 
A. D. encroachments of the French, even to dispossess them of 

1688. those territories which were fairly theirs, both by prior 
The col- discovery and settlement. Acadie, Canada, the region of 
^^^^ the Grreat Lakes, and the Valley of the Mississippi, be- 
the hos- longed to the French. Also the most lucrative traffic 
*^^'*^* with the Indians was carried on by them, as well as profi- 
table fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland, in common 
with other natives. 

Union of The French were not disinclined for the contest for the 
French sovereignty of North America; and, uniting with the 
dians. Indians, whom they had conciliated by Jesuit missionaries, 
made destructive inroads into the New England colonies 
and the province of New York. The English colonists 
retaliated, and carried the terror of their arms to the banks 
of the St. Lawrence. 

The desultory and protracted warfare with the French 
Canadians, and their allies the Indians, constitute the 
intercolonial wars until nearly the close of the reign 
of Anne, 

1689. The first one broke out in 1689, when the colonies had 
French ^ population, altogether, of about two hundred thousand 

Canadi- ^ ^ J & ^ 

ans in- people, half of whom were removed from the scene oi hos- 
En^Hsh^ tilities. So soon as a declaration of war between England 
colonies, and Fraucc was known in America, Baron Castin excited 
the Penobscot Indians to renew their depredations on the 
settlements along Casco Bay and the Piscataqua River, 
while Count Frontenac, as governor of Canada, detached 
three parties to desolate the villages on the Mohawk and 
Hudson. The influence which the French had acquired 
over the Indians was exerted to stimulate them to deeds 
of unparalleled barbarity. 

The English, on the other hand, (ncouraged the Mo- 



EXPEDITION AGAINST CANADA. 157 

hawks and other tribes of the Iroquois to invade Canada bk. in. 
and continue those atrocities which had nearly driven the ch. 5. 
settlers of Montreal to desperation. The Iroquois stood a. d. 
in the way of the French for continuing their settlements 1690. 
across the country to the banks of the Mississippi, and 
were the most formidable enemies which the white man, 
of any country, had ever encountered in America. 

The attacks of the French and Indians on Salmon Falls, ^'^pedi- 

tion 

which have been previously mentioned in another chapter, against 
aroused all the northern colonies, and a large force was ^^^^ 
raised to carry the war into Canada itself. Massachusetts 
took the lead in this united enterprise, and also, in addi- 
tion, sent out eight hundred men, under Sir William 
Phipps, and proved successful. Port Royal was easily 
taken and unscrupulously plundered, 1690. 

Meanwhile, the main body of the colonists, led by 
Winthrop, son of the ex-governor of Connecticut, and 
assisted by a party of Mohawks, advanced towards Canada, 
The expedition proved unfortunate. The van of the 
forces under Schuyler was repulsed by Frontenac, while 
the rest were stopped short at Lake George by the small- 
pox and want of provisions. 

Phipps about this time sailed from Boston with a large Expedi- 
force of two thousand men, besides a considerable addition J^^^ ^^' 
from New York, which Leisler had fitted out. A hostile riiipps. 
Indian carried the intelligence in fourteen days to Quebec, 
which had time to prepare for its defence ; for Phipps, unac- 
quainted with the navigation of the St. Lawrence, was nine 
weeks before he reached the city. Moreover, Frontenac, 
hearing of the disasters of the English at Lake George, 
hastened to Quebec and arrived in time to defend the city, 
which was even then strong in fortifications. Phipps was 
obliged to abandon the enterprise, and with difficulty could 
keep his men from mutiny, so dispirited were they with 
14 



158 RENEWAL OF THE WAR. 

BK.ni. failure, and disappointed in not obtaining the promised 
Ch. 5. plunder. 

A. D. The Indians, meanwhile, kept up a frontier war, and 
1699. tormented and killed all who fell into their hands, with 
the exception of those whom thej sold in Canada as pri- 
soners. It was at this period, during the latter part of the 
war, that Wells and York were burned, and Haverhill 
Peace of ^ud Audover attacked. The peace of Ryswick, which 
^P' was proclaimed in Boston December 1699, put an end to 
the war which had proved so disastrous to the English 
colonies. 
War of It "^^s soon, howcvcr, recommenced with increased bit- 
t^*^ , terness. Louis XIY . had secured, by intriojue and manatre- 
succes- ment, the throne of Spain for one of his grandsons. This 
^^°^' foolish ambition to place a Bourbon prince on the throne 
of Charles V. and Philip II., provoked beyond measure 
the princes of Europe, and a general confederacy was 
entered into to curtail his power. 

This attempt of the king of France to retain the as- 
cendency in Spain united the two countries together, and 
both were bound to sustain the claims which each nation 
League P^^ forth ou the American continent. Although the 
betweea Spaniards had remonsti-ated against the attempts of the 
lYench French, under D'Ibberville, 1699, to colonize Louisiana, 
rdicS*^" y^^} ^^ *^® family alliance between the Bourbon sove- 
reigns, both Spaniards and French turned their arms 
against the English settlements. 

The central colonies were not destined to suffer much 
by the renewal of the war. The Iroquois had made a 
compact of peace with both France and England, and 
rigidly adhered to it. But South Carolina, bordering on 
Spanish Florida, and New England, coveting the fisheries, 
were exposed to hostilities. 

In 1702, South Carolina began hostilities, and the 



WAU OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 159 

governor, James IMoore, headed an expedition of six hun- bk. iit. 
dred people for the reduction of St. Augustine, and sue- Cb. 5. 
ceeded in taking the town, though not the fort, to which ^^ p>_ 
the garrison retired. Nor could he long occupy the ground 1702. 
he had taken, for the appearance of two Spanish vessels 
near the mouth of the harbour compelled him to retreat, 
with the loss of his ships and stores, across the country. 

As South Carolina had embarked in the contest with War ia 
the hope of making slaves of the Indians who were friendly 
to the Spaniards, Moore, three years after, with another 
company of fifty men, and assisted by one thousand 
Creeks, allies of the English, advanced into the territo- 
ries of the Appalachees of Florida, whom Spanish mis- 
sionaries had taught some elements of civilization, and 
made captives of one hundred and fifty of them, and car- 
ried the English flag triumphantly through the wilderness 
to the Gulf of Mexico. This expedition furnished the 
English with a claim to Georgia, whose central forests 
were inhabited by the Creeks. The war resulted, thus 
far, in an extension of the English boundaries far into 
those territories which the Spaniards considered as a part 
of Florida. 

The war at the North was disastrous to Massachusetts, 1704, 

which colony alone was desolated. The frontier settle- Indian 

ments of course sufiered most. In February, 1704, the in mus- 

villao;e of Deerfield, on Connecticut river, was attacked ; ^^^^' 
J, , . setts, 

forty-seven persons were killed, and one hundred and 

twelve were carried prisoners into Canada. For three 
successive years the inhabitants were obliged to keep sen- 
tinels abroad, and lived in constant fear of the Indian 
tomahawk. " Children, as they gambolled on the boach ; 
reapers, as they gathered the han^est; mowers, as they 
rested from using the scythe ; mothers, as they busied 
themselves about the household, — were victims to an 



IbO INDIAN RAVAGES. 

Bg-ni. enemy who disappeared the moment a blow was struck, 

Ch. 5. and who was ever present when a garrison or a family 

A. D. ceased its vigilance." 

1710. These barbarities inspired the English colonists with 
detestation of the missionai'ies who were supposed to 
instigate them, and of the savage foes who were used as 
instruments by the French ; and a course of retaliation 
was adopted. A bounty was offered for every Indian 
scalp ; and the unfortunate natives were hunted like wild 
beasts in the forests which they once proudly called their 
own. 

Meanwhile, preparations were made in the colonies for 
the reduction of Acadie and Canada ; but it was not till 
September, 1710, that any success crowned their efforts, 
beyond ravaging an unprotected coast. But a fleet of 
thirty-six English and colonial vessels anchored before 
Port Koyal, whose garrison, weak, reduced, and disheart- 
ened, immediately surrendered. 

This expedition encouraged the English to make still 
greater preparations; and, accordingly, a fleet of fifteen 
ships-of-war and forty transports, carrj-ing seven veteran 
Quebec, regiments from Marlborough's army, sailed from Ports- 
mouth, and reached Boston in safety. This great arma- 
ment, amply sufficient for the reduction of Quebec, was 
entrusted to a man both obstinate and incapable — Sir 
Hovenden AValker — and signally and disgi-acefully failed 
in the object for which it was designed. The fleet did 
not leave Boston till the middle of July, 1711; and it 
was the twentieth of August before it reached the St. 
Lawrence. A fog arising, the ships were drifted among 
the breakers of the Egg Island, where eight of them were 
lost, and nearly nine hundred men were drowned. A 
council of war was held, and it was decided that it was 
impossible to proceed. 



TREATY OP UTRECITT. 161 

Thus Quebec was saved from attack, and leisure was ^^'^' 
given to fortify Montreal, threatened by an army from the Ch. 6. 
colonies, which, however, retreated when the disaster a. d. 
which had happened to Admiral Walker was known. 1713. 
The failure of both enterprises was severely felt in the 
colonies, which had issued a large amount of bills of credit 
to defray the expenses of the war, and had calculated 
upon complete success. 

Hostilities were closed the following year, 1713, by the Termi- 
treaty of Uti-echt, one of the most important in its conse- ^f hos- 
quences ever made in Europe, by which the balance of trntu^s. 
power was restored, and peace established for nearly half 
a century. By this treaty, Spain lost all her European 
provinces, but retained her colonies ; while France ceded 
to England the free trade of Hudson's Bay, Newfound- 
land, and Acadie. Dearly, however, was peace procured, 
and small were the benefits which England reaped for the 
loss of fifty millions of pounds, to say nothing of the 
great destruction of human life. Louis XIV., however, 
was the great sufferer, since he lost fame, power, and ag- 
grandizement — the great objects to which he had ever 
aspired — together with armies which had been his boast, 
and treasures which France never recovered. 

Thus closed the intercolonial wars which occurred dur- 
ing the reigns of William III. and Anne, in the course 
of which the English colonies had doubled their popula- 
tion, and had begun to attract the attention of the civil- 
ized world, not only for their intrinsic importance, but 
also, and in a higher degree, for the promise they gave 
of becoming, some day, a mighty empire. 



14* 



CHAPTER VI. 

STATE OF THE COLONIES AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF 
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

BK.in. Notwithstanding the many obstacles with which the 
Ch. 6. colonists had to contend, their condition constantly iin- 
A. D. pi'oved. Neither Indian wars, nor religious persecutions, 
1656. nor grievous commercial restrictions, nor oppression from 
Progres- I'oyal govcrnors, nor contests with the Canadians, nor the 
BiTeim- hardships attending the new life in the wilderness, pre- 
ment of vcntcd a Steady and progressive increase, both of popula- 
lonier ^^^^ ^^^ wealth. The tide of emigration still rolled on 
towards the West ; the colonists found a market for the 
raw materials they raised, but which they could not ma- 
nufacture; their habits of industry produced thrift and 
comfort; their institutions of learning trained them to 
habits of reflection, and taught them self-respect; their 
religious education restrained them from vice, and inspired 
them with elevated sentiments; while their political 
organization, their town meetings, their provincial assem- 
blies, and their management of public affairs, fitted them 
for self-government and future freedom. 
Popular It is difficult to know the exact population of the colo- 
^^^' nie?* at the beginning of the eighteenth century, since the 
accounts of most writers are contradictory. It is probable 
there were nearly 400,000 inhabitants, of which Virginia 
and Massachusetts had over 70,000 each, Connecticut 
85,000, Rhode Island 10,000, New Hampshire 10,000, 

(162) 



CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 1G3 

Maryland 35,000, North and South Carolina 10,000, bk.iii. 
New York 40,000, New Jersey 20,000, and Pennsylvania Ch. 6. 
40,000. This estimate is not an exact one, but is as a. d. 
near the truth as we can now arrive. Of these colonics, 1658. 
Massachusetts and Virginia were the most powerful and 
flourishing. In all of them, a more liberal government 
was exercised than in cotemporaneous French, Spanish, 
and Portuguese settlements, where the power of royal 
governors was almost despotic. The English colonists 
carried with them to America the ideas of freedom and 
equality, and the government at home was restrained 
within the circle of constitutional liberty. 

During the seventeenth century, the colonies patiently Engiib^h 
submitted to, if they did not theoretically acquiesce in, the theSght 
supreme power of Parliament. The revolution which oftaxa- 
placed William and Mary on the throne, established the 
submission of America to legislative control. " No taxa- 
tion of the colonies was practically attempted by the Par- 
liament, except what arose from the regulation of com- 
merce ; but the abstract right of indefinite taxation was 
proclaimed repeatedly, and a power assumed to alter the 
American charters, or at least to modify the constitutions 
which those charters had created." 

Overawed by the superior strength of the mother coun- popular 
try, embarrassed by the movements of the French in f^^' 
Canada, annoyed by the Indians, and not united by any 
political association, the colonists submitted to English 
legislation, rather than admitted the rights which Eng- 
land claimed. But this submission was rarely cordial, 
and popular discontents continually arose, especially in 
■view of the offensive and arbitrary manner in which the 
royal governors exercised their functions. They were not 
men of talents and rank, but generally needy dependants 
and mean sycophants about the court, who sought to 



164 OrPRESSIVE ENGLISH LEGISLATION. 

BK.in. recommend themselves to the king by headstrong zeal to 
Ch. 6. support his prerogatives. 

A. D. The colonies also were offended by the transportation 
1690. of English felons into their midst; a practice in which 
Trans- the government persisted, until the conquest of Louisburg 
tion of ^^ ^^^ people of Massachusetts opened the eyes of Par- 
Engiish liament as to the character and strength of the colonists, 
who were heretofore supposed generally to be criminals 
and negroes. 
Appoint- All the colonies had their Legislative Assemblies, in 
ment of ^j^j^ij their freemen were represented ; but there was a 

govern- _ ^ 

ors. considerable variety in their civil constitutions, and in the 
exercise of executive powers. In Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania, the proprietaries had the appointment of gover- 
nors. In Carolina and New Jersey, the soil belonged to 
the proprietary, and executive power to the king. In 
Virginia and New York, both belonged to the crown. In 
Massachusetts, the property of the soil was vested in the 
people, although the king appointed the governor. In 
Connecticut and Rhode Island, the people both owned 
the soil and appointed the executive officers. These dis- 
tinctions led to disputes respecting boundaries, but 
favoured the discussion of political ideas. 

Educa- The colonists early took the interests of education under 
their especial care, and expected nothing and received 
nothing from the British government. It is not probable 
that England was pleased to see this progress of mental cul- 
ture, since it naturally led to a spirit of independence. The 
colonies were regarded merely as a theatre where the sons 
of needy courtiers could exercise authority, or earn for- 
tunes — as a market for British manufactures — as a nation 
of friends and customers, interested in the glory, and 
favourable to the commercial importance of England. 
The interest which she as a government took, was purely 



tion 



POPULAR EDUCATION. 1G5 

selfish — to promote her own prosperity, not that of the bk. m. 
colonies. So long as they would raise abundance of raw Ch. 6. 
material, and would receive her manufactures, she was j^ -^ 
content. Schools and educational institutions would not 1675. 
obviously increase her commercial importance ; therefore, 
they were neglected. Nothing was encouraged which was 
not of direct service to her. She did give a donation to 
found a college in Virginia, that of William and Mary ; 
but this is the only instance of her bounty in the cause 
of literature and science. She shackled the press, and 
discouraged the printing of books. 

Nevertheless, the walls of Harvard and of Yale were Popular 
reared without assistance from the government of Great tLiT^ 
Britain, and schools were established in the colonies where 
young men could prepare themselves for the liberal pro- 
fessions. The ministers of religion took them under their 
especial patronage. Education was enjoined upon parents 
as a duty, and few grew up without the requisite know- 
ledge to enjoy those blessings which had been reaped by 
industry, and secured by freedom. As early as 1704, a 
newspaper was printed in Boston, and printing-presses 
were set up in Pennsylvania, New York, and Connecticut. 
But the press was not free from odious restrictions until 
1755. 

No great improvements were seen in the art of agricul- stato of 
ture, or agricultural implements. The great abundance ^»"^"* 
of land, and the ease with which the common crops were 
raised, prevented much attention to draining, or manures, 
or rotation of crops. Attention was chiefly given to 
clearing the land of forests, rather than to making it pro- 
ductive. The tools which were used were generally 
brought from England, with the exception of the wood- 
man's axe, the most necessary of all the implements of 
the early colonists. Oxen, horses, and sheep, were ori- 



turc. 



of the 
Indians 



.slavery. 



166 INDIANS AND NEGROES. 

bk. III. ginally imported, as well as bees; none of which the 
Ch. 6. Indians had seen. 

A. D. T^^ unfortunate aborigines declined as the new races 
1673. advanced, both in character and in numbers. Still, afc 
Decline ^^^ Commencement of the eighteenth century, there were 
ten thousand native warnors in New England, and a pro- 
portionate number in other colonies, with the exception 
of Virginia, where they had been nearly exterminated. 
The Indians, however, disappeared more rapidly in conse- 
quence of the vices and diseases they had contracted from the 
white man, than from war. Ardent spirits and the small- 
pox carried off more than the sword or the tomahawk. 
Negro On the other hand, negro slaves increased with more 

fatal rapidity than the Indians melted away. All that 
Africa could give to England in exchange for manufac- 
tures, was labourers for her colonies. Ships entered every 
considerable harbour of the colonies, south of Newport, 
laden with slaves; nor did the merchants of the North 
scruple to engage in the odious traffic. The coast of 
Guinea furnished these slaves in the greatest numbers ; 
and the unhappy victims of European cupidity were 
crowded into the holds of ships, ill-ventilated and worse- 
provisioned, where, manacled together, and delirious from 
fever, twelve out of every hundred died before they were 
delivered to their American masters. 

Had the climate of the North been favourable to the phy- 
sical constitution of the negro, and unfavourable to free 
white labour, slavery might have been perpetuated in New 
England, as it was in Virginia, as one of the institutions 
of the country. But the slave was valuable as he pro- 
ceeded south ; and Providence therefore entrusted chiefly 
to the southern colonies the guardianship of an unfortu- 
nate people. 

It is difficult to say how many Africans had been intro- 



THE SLAVE TRADE. 167 

duced into the colonies at the commencement of the eigh- BK.ni. 
teenth century; but probably not less than one hundred Ch. c. 
and fifty thousand. The English took from Africa, be- a. d. 
tween 1680 and 1700, about three hundred thousand; 1660 
bat these were intended for the West Indies, as well as *^ 
for the continental colonies, and many of them must have 
died on the passage. 

However convenient it was for the American colonies TheEng- 
to make use of slave labour, yet, as a whole, they were ^'o3^.^^|.o 
opposed to the slave trade ; and the fii'st American Con- colonial 
gress decreed, in 1776, that no slave should be imported tionson 
into any of the thirteen united colonies. It was the ava- tii*^fia^'« 

•^ ^ _ trade. 

rice of British merchants, and the selfishness of the 
I^ritish government, as much as the convenience of south- 
ern and West India planters, which caused the constantly 
increasing traffic in slaves ; for, before the declaration of 
American independence, as many as three millions of 
Africans were transported from their native shore in Bri- 
tish vessels alone, to say nothing of five millions in addi- 
tion who were consigned to slavery by the Dutch, the 
Portuguese, the Spaniards, and the French. " We cannot 
allow the colonies,^^ said an English minister, "to check 
or discourage, in any degree, a traffic so beneficial to the 
nation." Thus it happened that, even in the early days 
of colonial life, the seed was sown, not by the South 
alone, but by British and New England merchants, which, 
in our times, has produced such agitations, dissensions, and 
domestic calamities; to say nothing of the moral and 
physical evils which slavery has engendered, and which 
are seen, admitted and lamented by none more candidly 
than those who are born to contend with it, and who can- 
not get rid of it if they would. 




General Oglethorpe. 



168 



BOOK IV. 



CHAPTER I. 

DOMESTIC HISTORY UNTIL THE OLD FRENCH AND 
INDIAN WAR. 

The history of the colonies during the reign of George bk. iv. 
I. and the first twelve years of George IT. is not particu- ch.i. 
larly eventful or important. Yet, during this period, the ^ j^ 
population and resources of the colonies rapidly increased, 1715. 
and a theatre was preparing for great developments of 
action and passion. 

In 1715, two years after the peace of Utrecht, which War 
closed the second intercolonial war, South Carolina was 3^*^ *^* 

' Yamas- 

reduced to the brink of ruin by an extensive conspiracy sees, 
of the Indians. The Yamassees, a powerful tribe on the 
Savannah Biver, were the chief promoters of it. Encou- 
raged by the Spaniards in Florida, who were jealous of 
the English settlements, they united with the Creeks and 
Chcrokees, and inflicted, suddenly and unexpectedly, great 
barbarities upon the settlers of Pocotaligo and its vicinity, 
and advanced upon Charleston. A panic spread through- 
out the colony, for all the Indian tribes south of the Sa- 
vannah River had united together to exterminate the 
civilized invaders. But Craven, the governor, by making 
extraordinary exertions, raised a considerable force, and 
15 (169) 



170 REVOLUTION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 

1^1^- IV- advanced to meet tlie Indian warriors. A bloody battle 
Ch. 1. was fought on the banks of the Salke-hachie^ in which 
A. D. the savages were completely routed. But they were not 
1720. driven out of the colony until four hundred of the inha- 
bitants had lost their lives. Property to the amount of 
100,0007. was destroyed. 
Kevoiu- The war with the Yamassees was followed by a domestic 
tion in revolution. Since the people had defended themselves 

South ^ ^ r £■ 

Caroii- without the aid of England, they resolved henceforth to 
govern themselves and have no more to do with the pro- 
prietaries. Accordingly they elected a governor of their 
own — James Moore, and, without bloodshed, palatines, 
landgraves, and caciques, together with all those feudal 
institutions which the proprietaries had sought to revive, 
passed away for ever. The Carolinians sent an agent to 
England to defend their course, and obtained their end. 
The old charter was abrogated, Carolina became a royal 
province, and Sir Francis Nicholson was sent out to govern 
it in 1721. The assembly which he called confirmed the 
late revolutionary proceedings, regulated the administra- 
tion of justice, reduced official fees, and established a 
system of local electioneering. 
Missis- About this time New Orleans was founded by the 
compa- French, and that famous scheme for improving the French 
ny. provinces was projected by John Law, which had so great 
an influence on the settlement of Louisiana. It was 
called the Mississippi Company, and was closely connected 
with the royal bank of which Law was the director, and 
had for its object the parcelling out of the Valley of the 
Mississippi among stock-jobbers and commercial gamblers, 
in order to raise money for the French government, deeply 
embarrassed by the extravagances of the court and the old 
wars of Louis XIV. It does not fall within the limits 
of this history to detail the acts and misrepresentations by 



FOUNDATION OF LOUISIANA. 171 

which the Mississippi stock rose in value, and by which bk. iv, 
the debts of government were shifted from individuals to Ch. i. 
a company of its own formation. But during the height ^ ^ 
of the delusion which afterwards, when dispelled, brought 1720. 
such calamity on the commercial classes of France, the Failure 
Valley of the Mississippi was visited by thousands of ^^*^® 
Frenchmen with a view of making their fortunes ; for of Law. 
Louisiana was supposed to abound not merely in the pre- 
cious metals, but in everything which constitutes a para- 
dise on earth. On the downfall of Law and the bursting 
of his bubble, 1720, Louisiana was already planted, and 
French settlements extended, at intervals, nearly the whole 
length of the Mississippi. Although the French suffered 
frequent wars with various tribes of Indians, the popula- 
tion in 1740 was not far from ten thousand people, about 
a third of whom were negro slaves. 

One of the evils of this period was the depreciation of 1720. 
paper money. The colonies were poor. They had but ^*^^ 
little gold and silver. And yet they were obliged to raise 
large sums to defray the expenses of their numerous mili- ^^^^^. °^ 
tary expeditions. They could not make a forced loan the coio- 
without exciting clamour. They could not wait to collect ^^^' 
taxes, for the enemy was at the door. They had to resort 
to bills of credit. These rapidly depreciated in value, 
since they could not be redeemed. In order to get rid of 
this calamity, public banks were instituted in nearly all 
the colonies, which gave a temporary impulse to trade, but 
ultimately increased the difficulties. No issues were large 
enough to satisfy the people. Every increase of paper 
led to a new issue, and every new issue raised the compa- 
rative value of the precious metals, and consequently led to 
a depreciation of paper money. In 1738, the New Eng- 
land currency was worth but one hundred for five hundred 
dollars; of South Carolina, one for eight; while in Lon- 



172 ARBITRARY RULE OF ROYAL GOVERNORS. 

^^•^- don the paper of North Carolina was worth but one for 
Ch. 1. fourteen. 

A. D. England undertook to fix the value of colonial paper, 
1729. which was practically impossible, and led to disputes and 
EngUsh collisions. But this was not the only subject of conten- 
tions. *i^^- The royal officers claimed for the British navy all 
pine trees of the province of Maine which were fit for 
masts. The English government also forbade, 1725, the 
assembling of a synod of Congregational ministers in 
Massachusetts to establish points of discipline and faith. 
It attempted to enforce in Connecticut, 1728, the laws of 
primogeniture. It resolved to make the royal governors 
independent of all legislative iufluence by securing them 
permanent salaries. In Massachusetts the legislature was 
in the habit of voting yearly such a grant as the services 
of the governor seemed to require, which England afiected 
to regard as an attempt to shake off an obedience to the 
crown. In all the provinces there were constant subjects 
of complaint and contention. Nor did Pennsylvania 
escape. Even in that colony, Logan wrote to the pro- 
prietary, "faction prevails among the people, whose con- 
stant cry is liberty and privileges." In Maryland, Lord 
Baltimore was insolently treated by some of the assem- 
blies. The spirit of insubordination to royal authority 
was manifest for half a century before the great rebellion. 
Duties There were contests not only for the enjoyment of greater 
n^ai^ro^ liberty, but for the sake of commercial gain. Nothing 
duce. irritated the colonies more than the duty imposed by Par- 
liament, 1733, on molasses, rum, and sugar, which were 
brought from the French and Dutch West India Islands. 
And nothing was a more fruitful source of ill-feeling 
towards the colonies than the complaints of British mer- 
chants whenever the colonies engaged in any article of 
manufacture, however necessary. The whole object of 



BERKELEY AND EDWARDS. 116 

British legislation with regard to America was to raise up bk- tv. 
ix nation of customers for the merchants and manufac- ch. i. 
turers of the parent state. But this selfish policy need a. d. 
not here be further enlarged on. 1728. 

The colonies about this period received a visit from one Bishop 
of the most distinguished of the English philosophers, f^^^'*^ 
Dr. Berkeley, afterwards Bishop of Cloyne. He conceived 
a plan of improving colonial education and converting the 
Indians, and with this view repaired to Rhode Island, 
1728, to lay the foundation of a college; expecting a 
large grant from the British government, as George I. 
had approved his scheme, and directed Sir Robert Wal- 
pole, his prime minister, to recommend it to the notice of 
the House of Commons. The minister was not favour- 
ably inclined, and when George II. came to the throne 
he felt relieved from all obligation. Berkeley, disap- 
pointed in receiving aid, returned to England, leaving his 
library to Yale College and the people of Rhode Island. 

But a greater philosopher than Berkeley soon after 1740. 
appeared in New England, whose influence on the Ame- Jona- 
rican mind was more marked and permanent. This ^ards. ' 
was Jonathan Edwards, the minister of Northampton, 
and a native of Massachusetts. His Treatise on the Will 
has placed him in the first ranks of metaphysical writers 
of any age or country. But it was not as a scholastic 
and religious metaphysician that his influence was most 
remarkable in his day, but rather as the leader of a great 
religious revival. George Whitefield was his illustrious 
coadjutor in this religious excitement, which has had no 
parallel in the religious history of the country, 1740. 

Chauncey and other eminent divines of the latitudina- 174!2. 
rian party opposed the movement as fanatical, but it was ^^''}'^ 
sustained by a great majority of the more earnest and era. 
religious. Among the fruits of this revival were new 
15* 



174 THE GREAT AWAKENiNG. 

^^- 1^- efforts to convert the Indians. David Brainerd, 1742, 
Ch. 1. distinguished himself as a missionary among the Dela- 
A. D. wares; and even Jonathan Edwards himself, obliged to 
1754. leave Northampton by reason of his unpopular attempts 
Founda- to euforco religious discipline, became a preacher to the 
^'°^^ °^ Housatonic Indians at Stockbridge. It was here, in this 
mouth lonely retirement, that the most able of his metaphysical 
^^^' treatises was written. At Lebanon, Connecticut, Eleazar 
Wheelock established an Indian missionary school, 175^, 
which was subsequently removed to Hanover, New Hamp- 
shire, and became Dartmouth College. 
Coium- Nearly contemporaneous with the foundation of this 
biaCoi- institution was the establishment of King's College in 
New York, now called Columbia, and of Nassau Hall at 
Princeton, 1748. Education in Pennsylvania at the same 
time received an impulse from Benjamin Franklin, then 
the editor of the first American periodical magazine, and 
the free academy which he projected finally settled into 
the University of Pennsylvania. In 1752, Franklin 
made those electrical discoveries which gave him a Euro- 
pean reputation, and laid the foundation of his lasting 
fame ; next to Washington, the most distinguished person 
born in America before the Revolutionary War, but already 
famous when Washington was a boy. 
Settle- -^ little while before the " great awakening," a fortin- 
ment of nation was built on the Connecticut River, 1724, where 

Yer- ' ' 

mont Brattleborough now stands, the oldest English settlement 
in Vermont, yeavs before it was merged into a state. 
Meanwhile, anothci colony which demands our attention, 
was struggling for existence on the banks of the Savannah. 



CHAPTER II. 

SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 

The thirteenth and last of the colonies settled by the ^^ ^^ 
English in North America was Georgia. It owed its coloni- ~^^~r' 
zation, in part, to the jealousy of the English government 
of the Spaniards in Florida, and in part to the philanthro- I'jqq 
pic efforts of Col. Oglethorpe to ameliorate the condition to 
of poor debtors. A great part of the territories of South 1732. 
Carolina remained unoccupied, and that especially which causes 
had been the scene of Indian wars, between the Savannah 7^^*? 

' led to 

and the Altamaha, and which formed the southern fron- coionizaj 
tier, was peopled only by Indians. It seemed necessary Georgia, 
for the security of South Carolina, as well as the general 
interests of Great Britain, that a settlement should be 
made in the southern part of the country before the Spa- 
niards should attempt to annex it to Florida, or the French 
to Louisiana. But it was not easy to find men ready to 
embark their fortunes in the attempt to colonize a region 
peculiarly unhealthy, and exposed to hostilities from 
Indians, French, and Spaniards. Some motive more 
powerful than the love of gain was needed in this emer- 
gency. 

Fortunately, the zeal of a few benevolent individuals, General 
bent on removing a great social evil, accomplished what ^^i®- 
the desire for wealth could not. No colony ever was 
founded upon principles more completely philanthropic 
than the one designed by Oglethorpe. He, the descend- 

(175) 



176 COLONEL OGLETHORPE. 

^^- 1"^- ant of an ancient and honourable family, educated at Ox- 
Ch. 2. ford, a military officer of rank and fame, a member of 
A. D. Parliament, and a man of great practical benevolence, had 
1700 his attention particularly directed to the condition of those 
}p unfortunate persons who were immured in prison for 
^' small and trifling debts, which they, in their poverty, were 
Visits unable to discharge. The foulness of jails and the cruelty 
sons. of imprisonment were among the many social evils of the 
age. The sordid principles of commercial thrift out- 
weighed the love of liberty and regard for the great rights 
of man. Decency, charity, and freedom were all forgot- 
ten by a nation devoted to commercial enterprise. The 
legislation of England seemed to be mainly directed to 
secure the rights of property. A trifling theft sentenced 
a needy beggar to the gallows. An inconsiderable debt 
was punished with a thraldom as vile as the bondage of 
the greatest culprit in our age. Misfortune in trade was 
more to be dreaded than exile and slavery, for it also 
brought social disgrace as bitter as the penalty which was 
expiated in a filthy dungeon. No pictures of misery can 
be more revolting than those which have been handed 
down to us of the interior economy of prisons in England 
in the eighteenth century, 
state of I* so happened that the reverses of fortune consequent 
jails in qjj ^\^q commercial gambling which prevailed in England 
eight- during the South Sea mania, filled the jails with unfortu- 
century. ^^^^ prisoners. Many of them had enjoyed high social 
positions and envied wealth ; were people of taste, culture, 
and intelligence, but doomed, alas, from the eflect of 
national delusion — the hope of enormous gains for small 
investments, to blighted hope, mortified pride, and actual 
sufiering. The great increase of prisoners multiplied the 
horrors of confinement. Moreover, the corrupting influ- 
ence of imprisonment rapidly undermined all the moral 



CHARTER FOR GEORGIA. 177 

sentiments and corrupted those who before their imprison- bk. iv. 
ment were pure. Ch. 2. 

The evil was so great that it was brought to the notice a. d. 
of Parliament, and James Edward Oglethorpe had the 1732. 
honour of being chairman of a committee of inquiry. He ogie- 
had already conceived the idea of transportincr to America ^^o""?® 

■^ ° obtains 

the unfortunate debtors, and proposed to the government a royal 
to found a colony between Carolina and Florida for the for^Geor- 
objects of his benevolence. Parliament entered into his gia- 
design, and granted him 10,000/. in aid of his object. 
Other benevolent individuals co-operated, and, when the 
plan was matured, applied to King George II. for a char- 
ter, which was readily granted, by which the territory 
between the Savannah and the Altamaha was erected into 
a royal province, under the name of Georgia, and was 
vested in twenty-one noblemen and gentlemen, of whom 
the Earl of Shaftesbury, Lord Percival, Lord Tyrconnel, 
and Colonel Oglethorpe, were the most distinguished. 
Lord Percival was chosen president of the corporation, 
and Oglethorpe volunteered to accompany the emigrants 
and exercise the functions of provincial governor. 

Large donations to the enterprise were obtained from Dona- 
public-spirited individuals throughout the kingdom, as f^om be- 
well as from the House of Commons and the Bank of ^evoient 

indivi- 

England, and preparations were actively made for the set- duals, 
tlement of the colony, whose seal bore the device of a 
representation of silk-worms, with the motto " Non sibi sed 
aliis'' — not for ourselves, but others; the emblem of dis- 
interested benevolence. Moreover, the culture of silk 
was contemplated by the corporation, and considerable 
pains were taken to procure worms and mulberry trees, 
which, it was supposed, would flourish as well in Georgia 
as in Italy. 

On the 6th of November, 1732, the first company of 



178 CODE OP LAWS. 

bk. IV. colonists, consisting of one hundred and sixteen persons, 
Ch. 2. embarked under the command of Colonel Oglethorpe. 
^ jy They first landed in Charleston, where they were hospi- 
1732. tably received by the people and the Legislature. The 
The first letter votcd them a large supply of cattle and provisions, 
coi^ and the emigrants soon after departed for their new abode. 
Georgia. They Selected a high bluff on the Savannah for a settle- 
ment, which they called after the name of the river, and, 
having conciliated the favour of the Indians by presents 
and friendly intercourse, laid the foundation of a new 
State. The infant colony was soon after reinforced by 
new emigrants, and the benevolent governor returned to 
England to secure its defence and further welfare. 
Code of By the code of laws which the trustees had adopted, 
laws. £ft;y acres of land were allowed to every indentured serv- 
ant, and to every emigrant sent out by the corporation. 
No grants of over five hundred acres of land were permit- 
ted to any individual. The use of rum was prohibited, 
as well a^ negro slavery. Women were not allowed to 
inherit land — an arrangement meant to prevent a plurality 
of allotments from subsequently falling into the possession 
of a single individual. In default of male heirs, estates 
were to revert to the trustees. The whole code showed 
but little common sense, and was difficult to be enforced ; 
it evinced benevolent intentions, rather than enlarged 
views of human nature and happiness. It was peculiarly 
unpractical, and unfitted for the condition of an infant 
colony, 
immi- Oglethorpe was well received in England, and obtained 
tTthe benefactions from the king and parliament. He induced 
new CO- a company of Moravians to emigrate to his new colony, 
^^^^' where so much was promised, and so little was realized. 
He also led thither another reinforcement of three hun- 
dred persons, 1736, among whom were John and Charles 



THE SECOND EMIGRATION. 179 

Wesley — young enthusiasts, who contemplated tlae con- bk.iv. 
version of the Indians, as well as the religious growth Ch. 2. 
of the colony. But the age of religious enthusiasm had a. d. 
passed away. Mystic piety found no admirers in a colony 1736. 
of discharged debtors; and the great founder of Method- john 
ism, after an unhappy sojourn of two years, during which ^^^ 
he was involved in constant controversy, unappreciated by Wesiey. 
the people and unsupported by the governor, melancholy, 
homesick, and suffering from ascetic duties, was glad to 
return to England. There, however, he succeeded in 
kindling a religious life among the middle and lower 
classes, and in establishing a discipline for the mem- 
bers of his association, which, for wisdom and effective- 
ness, has had no parallel in the history of religious 
legislation. 

In the second emigration, more regard was paid by the Second 
trustees to the physical strength and condition of those t^n^to" 
who embarked. One hundred and fifty Highlanders, soon Georgia, 
after joined by others from the north of Scotland, gave 
energy and security to the colony, and proved among the 
most laborious and industrious of the people. 

The regulation of the trustees respecting the suppres- Difficui- 
sion of all trade in rum, nearly produced a rupture be- *^ ^^^^ 
tween Georgia and Carolina. ' The Carolinians attempted na. 
to store a considerable quantity of this liquor at Augusta, 
a fortified post on the Savannah, for the purpose of trade 
with the Indians ; but, as the vessels laden with it were 
passing Savannah, it was seized and destroyed. The 
act was, however, explained satisfactorily, and a mutual 
understanding between the colonies took place, which 
resulted in the agreement of the Carolinians not to 
smuggle strong liquors among the settlers in Georgia. 

The people of Georgia were not long satisfied with the 
laws which the trustees had imposed. It was perceived 



180 NEGRO SLAVERY. 

^^- ^^- that Carolina had greatly the advantage, both on account 
Ch. 2. of a more liberal tenure of land, and of the use of negro 
A. D. slaves. They therefore demanded of the trustees the 
1739. liberty to import negroes, without which they predicted 
Opposi- the utter desertion of the colony. The Moravians and 
eiaven^ the Scotch Highlanders regarded slavery as an outrage 
on human nature, and protested against its introduction ; 
but both the just and unjust complaints of the settlers 
were disregarded by the trustees. 
Georgia Meanwhile, the injuries inflicted upon British com- 
ened\y DQcrce by the Spaniards, and the arrogant claims they put 
the Spa- forth respecting Georgia, involved England in a war with 
Spain, in 1739; and effectual measures were adopted to 
secure the new province to the English crown. Ogle- 
thorpe was made a general, and commander-in-chief of the 
united forces of South Carolina and Georgia; while a 
regiment of six hundred troops was sent to the colony, 
together with a grant of twenty thousand pounds. 
Spa- The Spaniards intrigued to raise a conspiracy among 

Sgues' Oglethorpe's soldiers, and also to seduce the negro slaves, 
who now numbered, in South Carolina, forty thousand. 
Partial success attended these efforts, and five hundred 
negro fugitives reached Florida, and were formed into a 
regiment. But Bull, the governor of South Carolina, 
vigorously attacked them, and easily dispersed a body, 
unused to fire-arms, and abandoned to intoxication. 
St. Au- In the mean time, a regiment of troops was raised in 
Svest-^ Virginia, and North and South Carolina, to co-operate 
e^- with Oglethorpe. It was resolved to commence offensive 
operations, and St. Augustine was invested with an army 
of two thousand men. The invasion was unsuccessful. 
The Spanish garrison was well defended, and, in addi- 
tion, received a powerful reinforcement ; while the colo- 
nial troops, enfeebled by the climate, by fatigue, and by 



WAR BETWEEN THE SPANIARDS AND ENGLISH. 181 

sickness, deserted in large numbers. Even the general bk. iv. 
was attacked with a fever, and his regiment was worn Ch. 2. 
out. It became necessary, therefore, to abandon the a. d. 
enterprise. 1742. 

The Spaniards, in their turn, resolved to invade Geor- invar 
gia, and an armament of two thousand men was prepared qI^^°1^ 
and embarked for St. Augustine. The infant colony was 
in imminent danger ; but Oglethorpe, by a military stra- 
tagem, induced the invaders to believe that he himself 
was reinforced by a still greater number; and the Spa- 
niards, intimidated, hastily retreated to Cuba. 

In 1743, Oglethorpe returned to England, having for 1743. 
ten years renounced his own ease to promote the welfare unpros- 

_ ^ perous 

of his colony, whose affairs, for a time, were managed by state of 
a clan of military functionaries. These soon gave place \^^^ 
to a President and four assistants. But the colony did 
not thrive. Fifteen hundred persons had been trans- 
ported from England, not half of whom remained, on 
account of the absence of negro slaves, and the feudal 
restrictions in the tenure of land. The bulk of the popu- 
lation were indigent, and disinclined to labour ; and the 
colony would have been ruined, had it not been for the 
industry of the Scotch Highlanders and the German 
labourers. 

Wearied with the complaints of the people, and dis- Georgia 
gusted with the results of the colony, undertaken as it ^^hV 
had been with the most benevolent motives, the trustees crown, 
surrendered their charter to the crown, 1751, and John 
Reynolds was appointed governor of the province, the 
constitution of which was now similar to that of South 
Carolina. Negro slavery was shortly after introduced, 
and extensively prevailed, as well as those questionable 
pleasures which had been prohibited. 
16 



,. fll 



^viif.fli^WW 



JBli 



IJJJIi 



NflS-i III ''i;.,i': 

aib 



sit 

'I'll! 







wf^' 









I 



' liMiiil 



CHAPTER III. 

THE THIRD INTERCOLONIAL WAR. 

"While the colonies were rapidly advancing in popula- bk. iv. 
tion and commercial importance, a new war broke out ch. 3. 
between England and France, and involved the colonies ^ ^ 
in fresh troubles. This war grew out of the question of 1744. 
the Austrian succession. On the death of the Emperor ^^ ^^ 
Charles YI., the male line of the house of Hapsburg be- t^e aus- 
came extmct. By the Pragmatic Sanction, the empire succes- 
devolved on Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of the late ^^°"* 
emperor. The sovereigns of Spain, Saxony, and Bavaria, 
disputed the rights of the Austrian empress to this great 
inheritance, and presented rival claims. France inter- 
fered in the contest, and opposed the succession of IMaria 
Theresa, from jealousy of her great power. The aid of 
England was invoked by the empress, and was granted, 
not so much from a regard for her rights, as from opposi- 
tion to France. The subsidies of England to Austria 
irritated France, and provoked her to a declaration of war. 
All the powers of Europe were thus involved in the con- 
test which grew out of the troubles of Maria Theresa — a 
contest which did not terminate until more than a million 
of lives had been sacrificed, and one hundred millions of 
pounds sterling had been expended by Great Britain. 

Nor was the war confined to Europe, but extended 
to all the colonics of France, Spain, and England. In 
the East, the commercial companies of France and Eng- 

(183) 



184 ATTACK OF LOUISBURG. 

bk.iy. land struggled for supremacy, -which finally resulted in 
ch. 3. the entire conquest of India by the troops of the East 
A. D. India Company. In the West^ the struggle began for the 
1744, exclusive possession of North America, and finally ended 
in the conquest of Canada, and the ruin of French inte- 
rests on the western continent. It may be here remarked, 
that the great war of the Austrian succession was really 
the eff'ect of international jealousy. The claim of Mai'ia 
Theresa to the empire of Germany was a matter of com- 
pai'ative indifierence. It simply furnished a pretext and 
an occasion of war, and was not the real cause of hostilities. 
That is seldom presented by statesmen; indeed, it is in 
general studiously concealed. 
Ravages But, before news was received of a declaration of war 
Frcndi between France and England, a body of French from 
and In- Capo Brctou capturcd an English fort on the north-east- 
ern extremity of Nova Scotia. Moreover, French priva- 
teers from Louisburg greatly annoyed the New England 
fishermen; while the Indians, incited by the French, 
renewed their ravages on the frontiers. 
Pro- In view of these things, Shirley, then governor of Mas- 

posodatr sachusetts, proposed to the General Court an expedition 
Louis- to attack Louisburg, the strongest fortress in North Ame- 
^^' rica. The proposal was adopted, and an application made 
to all the northern colonies to join in the enterprise, which 
was undertaken without the aid, or even the knowledge, 
of Great Britain. Only the New England colonies ren- 
dered any valuable assistance, or embarked with any spirit 
in the scheme. Connecticut raised five hundred men, Rhode 
Island and New Hampshire each three hundred ; while 
Massachusetts enlisted, in seven weeks, a force of 3250 
men. The command was given to William Pepperell, a 
wealthy merchant of Kittery, in Maine ; and Whitfield, 
then a preacher in New England, lent the influence of his 



ITS CAPTURE. 185 

great name to the enterprise; and furnished a motto for bk. iv. 
the New Hampshire banners. Ch. 3. 

The expedition, composed of fishermen, whose avocation a. d, 
was now gone, of mechanics, lumbermen, and husband- 1745. 
men, embarked at Boston, April 4th, 1745, and on the 
80th came in sight of the walls of Louisburg, forty feet 
thick at the base, and thirty feet high, surrounded by a 
ditch eighty feet in width, and furnished with nearly two 
hundred pieces of artillery. So perfect were the fortifi- 
cations, that it was supposed that two hundred men could 
defend them against five thousand assailants. 

As soon as the disembarkation was effected, the siege Siege 
was commenced, and vigorous attacks were made; not, ^j-eo?* 
however, with much prospect of success. But the garri- Louis- 
son, composed of six hundred troops, was discontented and 
mutinous, and the commander incapable and irresolute. 
On the first misfortune, the governor lost spirit, and offered 
to capitulate ; and the strongest fortress on the continent 
fell, as if by the hand of Providence, certainly not from 
the effect of military skill, into the possession of a body 
of undisciplined fishermen and farmers, with the loss to 
the conquerors of only one hundred and fifty men. 

For this service Pepperell was made a baronet, and Moral 
commissioned as a colonel in the English army, as well as ^^^^^ °' 

° •' ' the vio- 

Shirley, who had projected the enterprise. The success tory. 
which had attended it cheered the drooping spirits of 
George II., and afforded a momentary consolation for the 
great reverses and misfortunes which the English suffered 
in other parts of the world. But the great effect was to 
implant confidence in the minds of the American colonists 
themselves, and teach them self-respect. 

The surrender of this strong fortress revived the hope, 
so often disappointed, of the conquest of Canada ; and a 
large force was projected in the colonies. Massachusetts 
16* 



186 MEDITATED INVASION OF CANADA. 

Br- IV- raised 8500 men, Connecticut 1000, New Hampshire 
ch. 3. 500, and Rhode Island 300 ; while New York voted 1600 
A. D. iiien, New Jersey 500, Maryland 300, and Virginia 100. 
1746. Great Britain agreed to send a large fleet and army to 
Force co-opcrate, to be joined at Louisburg by the New England 
i^vade*^ troops ; whilc those from the other colonies were to be 
Canada, assembled at Albany, under the command of Governor 

Clinton, of New York. 
Expedi- As the British fleet did not make its appearance, the 
aban- Massachusetts troops joined Clinton at Albany. But the 
doned. alarm of a French invasion, and the difficulties of a march 
through the wilderness, prevented the advance to Mont- 
real, and the enterprise was abandoned. Parliament, 
which had encouraged the colonies in this futile attempt, 
paid the expenses, which amounted to 235,000Z. Soon 
after, the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, put an end to 
the troubles. Louisburg was restored to the French, and 
Massachusetts received 183,000Z. as indemnification for 
the money expended on the expedition. 

The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle stipulated the restoration 
of all conquests made on every side during the war. The 
restoration of Louisburg occasioned the most painful sur- 
prise and mortification in the colonies, which not even the 
indemnification paid to Massachusetts could prevent. No 
war was ever more disgraceful to Great Britain than that 
of the Austrian succession. It increased the national 
debt eighty millions sterling, without procuring the slight- 
est national advantage, or the redress of a single injury 
of which she had complained. Nor was any one of the 
belligerent parties a gainer by the war ; and to all, except 
Great Britain, its termination was an advantage. 

This treaty also left the question of boundaries unde- 
cided, and, consequently, did not remove the occasion of 
future war. The French still aimed at the entire posses- 



ATM OF FRANCE. 187 

sion of the North American continentj — to erect on these ^^-^y 
western shores a new and military despotism. They ^^•^* 
based their claim to disputed portions of the American A. D. 
continent, as did indeed the English, on the ground 1«48. 
of prior discovery; and as it was difficult for the rival 
powers to prove who really did first discover those portions, 
the grand cause of contention still remained. But, then, 
this claim to prior discovery was rather a pretext for, than 
a cause of, war. Ambition and avarice were the real 
causes — sentiments which have ever peculiarly animated 
the French nation, under an absolute monarchy as well as 
under a republic. 

The particular objects of dispute were the boundaries objects 
between Canada and New England, and the extent of "^f^^ 
Louisiana. It was the aim of the French to unite these 
remote territories. They claimed what now composes the 
largest portion of the United States — even the valley of 
the Mississippi, and the country around the great lakes. 
To connect these immense territories, and to control the 
Indians, they erected a chain of military posts from Canada 
to Louisiana, which will be considered in the succeeding 
chapter. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE FOURTH INTERCOLONIAL, OR OLD FRENCH AND 
INDIAN WAR. 

Heretofore the hostilities in which the French and bk. iv. 

English colonies had been engaged originated in quarrels Ch. 4. 

between European states, and were subordinate to the a. d. 

main current of affairs across the Atlantic. They began 1748. 
and ended when war or peace was declared in Europe. *^ 
But the contest which is now to be presented grew out of 

collisions in America itself, and was not closed until it ^reiich 

' and 

had involved the whole European continent and even the English 
ancient empires of India. It was the final struggle be- l^^. °^^ 
tween the French and English for the country on the great 
lakes and on the Mississippi River; or, in other words, 
for supremacy on the American continent. " Had either 
or both of the contending monarchs,^^ as has been forcibly 
expressed by Graham, "perceived how injurious their 
collision must prove to the interests of royalty, surely the 
war which we are now approaching would never have 
broken out, and human prudence would have anticipated 
the mighty stream of events which, commencing with the 
conquest of Canada, and issuing in the independence of 
the United States and the impulse thereby communicated 
to the spirit of liberty and revolution throughout the 
world, has so wonderfully displayed the dominion of su- 
preme wisdom and benevolence over the senseless, selfish, 
and malignant passions of men." But French and Eng- 

(189) 



190 FRENCH AND ENGLISH ANIMOSITY. 

Eg- ^^- lish animosity, commencing with the claim of Edward III. 
Ch. 4. to the crown of France, nourished, by successive contests, 
A. D. hy religious differences, and unnatural rivalry, for centu- 
1753. ries, was extended to the most distant sections, both in 

The 

French America and Asia, and arrayed otherwise peaceful colo- 
'^^ nists in destructive antagonism. They stigmatized each 
struggle other with epithets hard to be endured. They encroached^- 
colonies, upou each other's rights. They laid claim to each other's 
territories. They both sought to monopolise the fisheries 
of the coast and the trade with the Indians in their dis- 
tant forests. 
Cornpa- Of these two races in America the English were by far 
for^^of *^^ ™°^* powerful. They numbered more than a million 
the par- of people in the various colonies. They were in posses- 
sion of nearly the whole of the sea-coast which was desi- 
rable, and their settlements extended one hundred and 
fifty miles into the interior. And among the English 
colonies liberty and education, those great auxiliaries to 
national strength, were in a flourishing state. The people 
were devoted to agriculture, were moral and industrious, 
and were bound together by the ties of friendship and 
mutual interest. The French numbered only about fifty 
thousand; they possessed scarcely any sea-coast or harbour; 
they had made settlements only on two great rivers, nearly 
two thousand miles apart ; they were checked and con- 
trolled by a rigid colonial despotism ; they were indiffe- 
rent to the great interests of commerce and manufacture, 
and cared more to fortify and occupy strong and remote forts 
than to improve the soil, or cultivate industrious habits. 
Between such states and people the final issue of a contest 
could not be doubtful. And yet the French, intoxicated 
by their military successes, and indulging in dreams of 
universal dominion, were eager to embark in the unequal 
contest. The English, on the other hand, conscious of 



CAUSES OF THE WAR. 191 

superior strength, and equally ambitious, were not behind- bk. iy. 
band with their rivals in arrogance and encroachments. Ch. 4. 

It is difficult to decide who were the first to provoke an a. d. 
appeal to arms. They mutually accused each other of 1715. 
being the aggressors. Both parties were to blame, and Mutual 
both were doomed to be sufferers. The English govern- "^^^^^""^ 
ment made a gi'ant of six hundred thousand acres of land 
on the Ohio River to a company of London merchants 
and Virginia land speculators, with the privilege of exclu- 
sive traffic with the Indians ; which manifestly was an 
encroachment on the rights of the French, if discovery and 
occupation gave a claim to the Mississippi and its tributa- 
ries. The French occupied more than sixty posts at diffe- 
rent points between Canada and New Orleans, and a flou- 
rishing trade had long been carried on with the Indians. 
This constituted a title to the western country, according 
to the principles which were then maintained in Europe. 
On the other hand, the French were accused of erecting 
a chain of fortresses along the St. Lawrence, the region 
of the lakes, and the course of the Ohio and Mississippi 
Rivers, to the Gulf of Mexico, with a view of cutting off French 
all communication of the English with the interior, and J™^^" 
of occupying the finest territory on the American conti- 
nent, as far as the Pacific Ocean. For even in that age 
the future greatness of America was appreciated and ac- 
knowledged, and it was not until the colonies had secured 
their independence that it became the fashion in England 
to affect indifference and contempt. 

The design of the French to restrict the growth of the Design 
British settlements was perceived as early as 1715, and, Frc^udi. 
as the English meditated the possession of the whole con- 
tinent, the French were regarded, of course, as hostile, and 
as aiming at aggrandizement. But what most irritated 
the English, both at home and in the colonies, was the 



Wash- 
ington 



192 WASHINGTON. 

bk.iv. erection, by the French, of a chain of fortresses in what 
Ch. 4. they considered as their territory, or as belonging to In- 
A. D. ^i^ii tribes under their protection. England expostulated, 

1753. and conferences were held at Paris to settle the difl&cul- 
Erection tics, especially those of boundary. But these only in- 
of forts creased the irritation and perplexity which already existed 
French, between the two nations, and induced the French to 

strengthen, rather than abandon, the posts they had forti- 
fied. The colonies were as indignant as the mother coun- 
try, especially Virginia, which was interested in the suc- 
cess of the Ohio Company. Accordingly, Governor 
First ap- Dinwiddic despatched George Washington to the French 
anceof commandcr on the banks of the Ohio, with a letter 
requiring him to retire from the country upon which he 
was supposed to encroach. The future hero of the Revo- 
lution was then only twenty-one years of age, but of great 
promise, being known as a man of uncommon energy, 
judgment, and fortitude. None better than he knew the 
wilderness through which he was to journey, having 
traversed parts of it as a land-surveyor. He was also a 
major in the militia, and discharged the duties of adjutant- 
general. He cheerfully undertook the dangerous mission, 
which he nobly discharged, but without producing the 
effect desired. The French still continued to construct 
their fortifications. 

1754. Dinwiddle now called on the neighbouring colonies for 
aid to resist French encroachments, and the Virginia 
Assembly granted ten thousand pounds to defend the 
frontiers. North Carolina voted a regiment of four hun- 
dred and fifty men. The other colonies did not then 
respond to the call of the governor of Virginia, being 
engrossed with domestic difficulties. 

A regiment of six hundred men had been enlisted in 
Virginia, of which Frye was colonel, and Washington 



HIS ADVANCE TO DU QUESNE. 193 

lieutenant-colonel. Joined by two independent companies bk. iv. 
from New York, and one from North Carolina, the colo- ch. 4. 
nial troops penetrated to the frontier, with the view of ^ -^ 
dispersing the French, and building a fort at the junction 1754. 
of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers. But the ^^i^. 
French had already strongly fortified that post, which, in ington 
honour of their governor-general, they called Du Quesne. against 
Washington, by the death of Frye, became the commander ^"^^ ^" 
of the forces, and advanced to make himself master of 
that important fortress, having already been successful in 
an attack on a detachment of the enemy at the Great 
Meadows. Here he built a stockade fort, and then 
marched towards Du Quesne. But hearing of the ap- 
proach of a superior French force, he fell back upon Fort 
Necessity, which he had but lately built, resolved there to 
defend himself. But, after a vigorous defence, he con- Failure 
sented to capitulate, on condition of retiring with all the gxpcdi- 
honours of war, and his troops retaining their arms and tio^^- 
ammunition. Washington retreated with little loss to 
Wills' Creek, and assisted in the construction of Fort 
Cumberland — the westernmost English post. 

Meanwhile, the colonies, persuaded that a sanguinary Project- 
war was impending, took measures for mutual defence, oftheco. 
and prepared to raise both money and men. But disputes ^°"^'^- 
about precedence and rank, and jealousy of a president- 
general, prevented the confederation which had been pro- 
posed by Franklin, and which was moreover distasteful to 
Great Britain and many of the colonies. The discussion of a 
plan of union served, however, to familiarize the idea of a 
federation, and prepared the minds of the people for that 
form of confederacy which was afterwards adopted in the 
llcvolutionary War. 

The British ministers, on receiving intelligence of the 
establishment of French posts on the Ohio, and of Wash- 
17 



ca. 



194 GENERAL BRADDOCK. 

^^- 1"^- ington's defeat, perceived that a war between France and 
Ch. 4. England was begun, and took immediate measures for 
A. D. vigorous hostilities. Early in 1755, General Braddock 
1755. was despatched to America with two regiments of infantry, 
Brad- while the provinces were called upon to furnish their 
ten^to ^^^^^s ^^ ^^6^ ^^^ money, to which call they cheerfully 
Ameri- responded. Braddock summoned the provincial governors 
to meet him at Annapolis, and settle military operations. 
Three expeditions were projected. The first, against Fort 
Du Quesne, was to be conducted by Braddock himself, 
with British troops ; the second was entrusted to Governor 
Shirley, of Massachusetts, and was designed to reduce 
Fort Niagara; and the third was to attack Crown Point, 
on Lake Champlain, and to be undertaken by militia from 
the northern colonies, under Colonel Johnson. 

The French made still greater preparations, when they 
learned the departure of Braddock ; and a force of four 
thousand regular troops, with a great quantity of military 
stores, under Baron Dieskau, embarked for America, and 
most of them succeeded in reaching their destination. 
While these preparations were making for a sanguinary 
Nova war, the people of New England agreed to invade Nova 
'^ ^^ Scotia, on condition of being reimbursed by the English 
government for the expenses of the expedition. Accord- 
ingly, about three thousand men, under the orders of 
Colonel Winslow, of Massachusetts, departed for Nova 
Scotia. There they were joined by three hundred regular 
troops, and a small train of artillery; and the command 
of the united forces was given to Colonel Moncton, an 
English oflScer of experience and talents. The expedition 
was not particularly glorious, but was completely success- 
ful. The French forts erected in the province were de- 
stroyed, the French troops dispersed, and the unfortunate 
settlers carried captive to New England, and scattered 



Inva- 
Bion of 



HIS DEFEAT AND DEATH. 195 

over the colonies. The Acadians were the most interest- bk. iv. 



ing French colonists in America, and no plea of necessity ch. 4. 
could justify the cruelty of tearing them away from their ^^ ^ 
homes, and consigning them to wretchedness and poverty. 1755. 

This successful, but useless expedition, diflfused a mo- 
mentary joy over the English colonies, and was regarded 
as an omen of future triumphs — alas ! soon succeeded by 
a scries of disasters of the most melancholy character. 

The army destined to reduce Fort Du Quesne, advanced Brad- 
under Braddock to Fort Cumberland amid unexpected advance 
difficulties. Here the British regulars were joined by the ^^'^^ 
Virginia levies, the united forces amounting to twenty- 
two hundred men. Through almost impenetrable woods, 
and over the rough ridges of the Alleghany mountains, 
the troops of Braddock slowly made their way. Vexed 
at delay, the infatuated general left half his men, with 
the heavy baggage, under Colonel Dunbar, and pushed 
on heedlessly in advance. Washington was his aid-de- 
camp ; and he and others remonstrated against his reck- 
lessness, and warned him of his danger. Bat Braddock 
would take no advice, despising alike his Indian enemies 
and his provincial friends. At length, when he had 
penetrated to within seven miles of Fort Du Quesne, just 
after fording the Monongahela, his van, composed of Eng- 
lish regulars, was assailed by an invisible enemy. Eight FaUs in- 
hundred French and Indians, concealed by the high grass ^^y^^^ 
and undulations of an open wood, poured upon the Eng- 
lish a most destructive fire, singling out the officers espe- 
cially for their deadly aim, of whom sixty were either 
killed or wounded. Braddock knew not how to advance 
or retreat, and insisted upon fighting according to rule, as 
if Indians were to be subdued in their own forests by 
European tactics. Accordingly, he lost half of his men ^^^^ .^ 
and his own life. The provincials, accustomed to Indian defeated. 



3.96 CONTINUED REVERSES. 

BK-iT. warfare, were the only troops who effectually resisted; 
Ch. 4. and Washington, the only unwounded officer who was 
A. D. mounted, succeeded in securing their retreat — preserved, 
1755. perhaps miraculously, certainly providentially, for the 
future service of his country. The defeated army, un- 
pursued except for a few miles, did not rally until they 
reached the camp of Dunbar. They would have been 
entirely cut off, had not their savage foes preferred plunder 
to massacre. 
Expedi- Meanwhile, the second expedition, designed to attack 
tion Pqj^ Niagara, and composed of Shirley's and Pepperell's 
Kiagara. regiments, together with a few Indians and militia, pro- 
ceeded from Albany to Oswego. On reaching Lake 
Ontario, August 21st, Shirley's forces were so much re- 
duced by desertion, so overcome with fatigue, and so dis- 
couraged by the news of Braddock's defeat, that the 
expedition was abandoned. 
Against The forces which were to proceed to Crown Point, con- 
Crown gisting of fivc or six thousand militia from New York and 

Point ° 

the New England States, and entrusted to the command 
of Colonel William Johnson and General Lyman, reached, 
toward the end of August, the southern extremity of Lake 
George. Meanwhile, Dieskau, with two thousand troops, 
advanced to relieve the fortress. Informed of his ap- 
proach, Johnson detached a body of one thousand men 
under Colonel Williams, and some Indians under Hcn- 
drick, to resist him ; but, encountering Dieskau's army in 
a narrow defile, they were driven back with great loss. 
Among the slain were Williams and Hendrick. The 
former, before he left Albany, bequeathed a legacy for a 
free-school in Western Massachusetts, which has since 
grown into Williams College. 

Dieskau was so elated with his success, as to venture 
upon an attack of Johnson's camp, which was protected 



MONTCALM. 197 

by impassable swamps and a breastwork of fallen trees. Bk. iv. 



But the assailants were soon driven back, with the loss Cb. 4. 
of one thousand men. Dieskau himself was mortally ^, jj, 
wounded, and taken prisoner. Had the provincial militia 1755. 
known how to avail themselves of their success, or Defeat of 
had they been favoured with an able commander, they i^i^skau. 
might have taken Crown Point ; instead of which, they 
even permitted the French to fortify Ticondcroga, while 
the Indians perpetrated their customary barbarities on the | 

frontier settlements. 

Thus completely failed the three expeditions which 1756. 
England and the colonies had fitted out to dispossess the England 

. remuno- 

French of their strongholds. But these military opera- rates tho 
tions, of course, led to a formal declaration of war between ^^^^^^'*^- 
England and France; and preparations were made for 
prosecuting hostilities on a greater scale. The colonies 
agreed to raise as many as twenty thousand men ; while 
England voted 115,000/. as a reimbursement to the pro- 
vinces concerned in Dieskau 's defeat. The French, too, 
sent out a reinforcement under Montcalm, the successor 
of Dieskau. 

The campaign of 1756, however, terminated without 
anything being accomplished by the English, partly be- 
cause the colonies did not raise so large a force as they 
had contemplated, and partly because differences arose 
between the English and provincial officers respecting 
rank. And all plans of offensive operations were aban- 
doned in consequence of the successes of Montcalm, who guo. 
had succeeded in capturing the forts which the English ^'-^^''^ ^^ 
had built on Lake Ontario. Upwards of one thousand calm, 
men, and one hundred and thirty-five pieces of artillery, 
together with a great, quantity of provisions, fell into the 
hands of the French general. 

The campaign of 1757 was limited to the defence of 
17* 



198 EXPEDITION AGAINST LOUISBURG. 

^g- IV- the frontiers^ and an expedition against Louisburg. But 
Ch. 4. no scheme of defence could avail much when the great 
^_ D_ frontier forts were in possession of the French, and the 
1757. Indians were free to commit their destructive ravages; 
Another ^^^clj SO far from capturing Louisburg, the large force 
expedi- ^f twelve thousaud troops which General Loudon led 

tion ... 

against agaiust it, assistcd by eleven ships of the line, was forced 
burg!" ^^ retreat, since a fleet of seventeen French ships had 

anchored under the very batteries of the fortress. 
C!ontin- While the English wasted their strength in a futile 
asters to ^^^^^P^ against Louisburg, Montcalm, with eight thousand 
theEng- men, laid siege to Fort William Henry; a strong fortifica- 
tion which the English had lately built on the southern 
extremity of Lake George. Colonel Munroe had only 
two thousand men to defend the post, and was obliged to 
surrender, especially since no effort was made for his relief 
by General Webb, who, with four thousand men, was 
entrenched at Fort Edward, fourteen miles distant. Mont- 
calm, satisfied with his success, returned to Canada. 

Thus, after three campaigns, the French still held pos- 
session of the disputed territory, and had, in addition, 
gained signal advantages. They had expelled the English 
from Fort Oswego and from Lake Champlain, and had 
devastated the whole north-western frontier of the British 
colonies. The English had gained nothing but disgrace, 
and had wasted money and men enough to have conquered 
Canada. The French exulted, while England was filled 
with mortification and alarm. The feeble ministers of 
George 11. were assailed with reproaches from every cor- 
ner of the land. It was necessary for the king to make 
Wiiuam ^ change, or yield to French supremacy; and William 
^^"' Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham, came into power. 

The moment this great man assumed the reins of state, 
a new spirit animated both England and her colonies. 



VIGOROUS MEASURES OF ENGLAND. 199 

The most vigorous measures were immediately adopted, bk. iv. 
and great preparations were made for offensive war. The cb. 4. ' 
active minister wrote circular letters to all the provincial ^ ^ 
governors, inviting the colonies to a generous co-operation, 17 57. 
promising them compensation for any expenses they might p.^^,^ 
incur, and appealing to their patriotism and their courage, minis- 
A common zeal animated all the colonies, who responded 
nobly to the call of Pitt. Massachusetts voted to raise 
7000 men, Connecticut 5000, New Hampshire 900, New 
York 2680, New Jersey 1000, Rhode Island 500, Penn- 
sylvania 2700, and Virginia 2000. Meanwhile, 12,000 
British troops, under General Amherst, early in May, 
arrived at Halifax, beside the regular forces which were 
brought together from the various provinces. 

The united English and American armies at this pe- 
riod, composed by far the largest military force ever yet 
assembled in America, and equal to the whole number of 
male French settlers in Canada. The supreme command 
was given to Abercrombie — the chief blunder which the 
English minister made, after assuming the direction of the 
war. 

The old schemes of Shirley were renewed. Three 
expeditions were planned — the first against Louisburg, 
the second against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and the 
third against Fort Du Quesne. 

Louisburg was first assailed. Early in June, 1758, capitu- 
Admiral Boscawen appeared before that fortress with Nation of 
thirty-eight ships, and fourteen thousand troops. It was burg, 
defended by only three thousand men, and was moreover 
in a state unfit to withstand a cannonade. It of course 
capitulated, and, with it, fell all its dependencies. 

The second expedition, though well planned, failed 
from the incapacity of the general-in-chief. Abercrombie, 
at the head of fifteen thousand njcn, embarked on Lake 



^MU SUCCESSFUL CAMPAIGN. 

^^- 1^- George in flat-bottomed boats, landed near its outlet, and 
cii. 4. advanced upon Ticonderoga. The van of the army, led 
A. D. bj unskilful guides, became entangled in the thickets, 
1758. and would have experienced the same catastrophe which 
Attack befel Braddock, had not Lord Howe, a brave and gallant 
officer, at the head of the right centre column, unexpect- 
edly rescued the panic-stricken troops, though with the 
loss of his life. The British forces, without further oppo- 
sition, then advanced to the attack of Ticonderoga, which 
was strongly defended. The assailants were repulsed with 
the loss of two thousand men, and, dismayed by their dis- 
asters, made a rapid retreat to Fort William Henry. 

The expedition against Fort Du Quesne was more suc- 
cessful. It was entrusted to General Forbes with seven 
thousand men. After encountering great difficulties in 
the pathless wilderness, they reached, in the latter part 
of November, the French fortress, whose garrison, reduced 
to four hundred and fifty men, retired as they advanced. 
The fort was of course taken, and its name was changed 
to Pitt, in honour of the minister. 

The campaign was thus honourably terminated, on the 
whole, notwithstanding the defeat at Ticonderoga. But 
preparations were made with great zeal for still more 
vigorous measures the next year. The genius of Pitt 
planned the entrance to Canada by three distinct routes, 
with the view of attacking simultaneously all the strong 
fortresses in the country. It was designed that an army 
under General Wolfe, who had greatly distinguished him- 
self at the siege of Louisburg, should ascend the St. Law- 
rence and attempt the capture of Quebec. General 
Amherst, who had superseded Abercrombie, v/as directed 
to march against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and then 
to penetrate Canada, and join Wolfe at Quebec. The 
third army, composed of provincials, and conducted by 



INVASION OF CANADA. 201 

General Prideaux and Sir William Johnson, was to be bk. iv. 
sent against Fort Niagara, and, after reducing that post, ch. 4. 
was ordered to embark on Lake Ontario, descend the St. a. d. 
Lawrence, subdue Montreal, and then join Amherst and 1759. 
Wolfe. 

The campaign of 1759 resulted gloriously to England, 
but chiefly in consequence of the successes of Wolfe, who, 
without the co-operation of the forces of Amherst or 
Johnson, succeeded in taking the most important fortress 
in x\merica, and the capital of Canada. 

General Amherst, on reaching Lake Champlain, found Crown 
both Crown Point and Ticonderoga abandoned, their gar- and^Ti- 
risons having been withdrawn for the defence of Quebec ; condoro- 
but he was unable to advance to the assistance of Wolfe, doned 
from a lack of vessels to transport his troops. He was p^^*^^^^ 
obliged to content himself with the possession of the shores 
and forts of Lake Champlain. 

Prideaux had a prosperous voyage from Oswego to Reduc- 
Niagara, but was killed while investing the fortress by the Niagara, 
bursting of a gun. The command devolved on Johnson, 
to whom the fort surrendered ; but he, like Amherst, was 
prevented from descending the St. Lawrence for want uf 
proper shipping. 

To Wolfe alone belongs the glory of the conquest of woifc'a 
Qaebec. After a successful voyage from Louisburg, he ®^p**^'- 
disembarked, with eight thousand troops, towards the end against 
of June, on the Isle of Orleans, a little below Quebec. ^"'''^^ 
His naval superiority gave him the command of the river, 
and he succeeded in gaining possession of a high eminence 
opposite Quebec. But two months were wasted without 
much prospect of success. His batteries had no effect on 
the fortifications of the strongest fortress in the land, and 
he was unable to bring the French into an engagement. 
At last, the intrepid general meditated an attack on the 



202 FALL OF QUEBEC. 

bk. IV. only point where the fort was weak. Could he but onco 
Ch.4. succeed in reaching the heights of Abraham, he might 
A j)^ induce the French commander to give him battle, and the 
1759. possession of Quebec would be the fruit of victory. 
Heights ^'^G heights in question were about a mile above the 
of Abra- ^j^^^ ^^^ ^^^.q guarded only by a feeble garrison ; for a 
few men were deemed quite sufficient to prevent any num- 
ber of assailants from climbing to their summit. Nor was 
it even dreamed of by the French that the English would 
attempt to do so ; for the steep and rocky sides of the 
hill were nearly precipitous towards the river. Should 
the garrison be on its guard, repulse would be fatal. 
Their Nevertheless, undeterred by danger, Wolfe resolved to 

'^^^ scale the heights. Accordingly, his army moved up the 
w^oifb. river a few miles, apparently with the intention of landing 
in several places; but when midnight approached, the 
troops were embarked in flat-bottomed boats, and rowed 
to the only spot where a landing could be effected, and an 
ascent made. They fortunately escaped the notice of the 
sentinels, and, before day, the whole army had ascended 
the narrow path which led them to the heights. Even 
then, the victory was but half won ; for a battle, between 
nearly equal forces, must be fought before the city could 
be won. Had Montcalm retired behind the walls, it may 
well be doubted whether Vt^olfe could have reduced the 
Battle of city ; but he advanced, with chivalrous ardour, to meet 
Quebec. ^-^^ eucmy on equal ground. Both armies were destitute 
of artillery, with the exception of two small pieces on the 
side of the French, and a few which the English had 
contrived to hoist up after they had gained the summit of 
the heights. But the battle was scarcely less desperate 
on account of the absence of artillery. It raged with 
singular fierceness on both sides, and victory did not 
incline to the English until both commanders had been 



CONQUEST OF CANADA. 203 

mortally wounded. That battle decided the fate of Que- bk. iv. 
bee. The city, five days after, capitulated, and has ever Ch. 4. 
since remained in the hands of the victors. A. D. 

The conquest of Quebec, while it diffused universal joy 1759. 
throughout the British dominions, was dearly gained by ECFects 
the death of Wolfe, the most promising and successful ^^^J^e 
general of whom England was proud, next to the Duke 
of Marlborough. The people mourned for him as they 
did for Nelson, half a century later, with unaffected grief. 
Had he lived, he would have been rewarded with estates, 
and titles, and decorations ; but, cut off prematurely from 
life and its prizes, a grateful nation could only decree him 
a monument, and cherish the memory of his fame. 

The French made desperate efforts to recover the 1760. 
ground they had lost, while the English renewed their French 
preparations for the entire subjugation of Canada. The 
campaign of 1760 opened, in the month of April, by the 
embarkation of ten thousand men from Montreal, under 
the command of M. de Levi, the successor of Mont- 
calm, with the hope of recapturing Quebec. Murray, 
who had succeeded Wolfe, had hardly three thousand 
men, and his provisions were scarce. Wishing to avoid a 
siege, the English imprudently marched out from the garri- 
son, and, giving battle to the French at Sillcry, were de- 
feated, and forced to retire behind their entrenchments. 
They soon after received supplies by sea from home ; and 
the French, thinking that the whole English fleet, which 
had wintered at Halifax, had arrived, raised the siege, and 
retired to Montreal. 

Against this last stronghold all efforts were now direct- 
ed. Here the Marquis de Yaudreuil, governor-general 
of Canada, had fixed his head-quarters, determined to 
make a desperate stand, and had rallied around him all 
his scattered troops. 



204 WAR WITH THE CHEROKEES. 

Bg- IV- The colonies assisted General Amherst all in their 

Ch. 4. power, and three armies advanced from diiferent directions 

A. D. towards Montreal, numbering altogether twenty thousand 

1760. men, — regulars, militia and Indians. These armies, com- 

Surren- maudcd respectively by Amherst, Haviland, and Murray, 

'^^^ '^!_ met nearly simultaneously, on the seventh of September, 

real. before Montreal. The French commander, perceiving 

that resistance was now hopeless, demanded a capitulation, 

and, the next day, surrendered to the English every place 

of strength in Canada. 

Thus fell the colonial possessions of France on the con- 
tinent of America, with the exception of the infant set- 
tlement of Louisiana. Great was the exultation of Eng- 
land, and equally great that of the colonies, especially 
those of New England, who were now delivered from the 
scourge of Indian war on the frontiers. 
War The southern colonies were, however, involved in a war 

Cherc^ ^vith the Cherokees, which the Virginians had provoked, 
^®®^- and which the French had stimulated. A party of Che- 
rokees, retiring from assisting the English against Fort 
Du Quesne, having lost their horses, seized such as they 
could find in the woods, which happened to belong to the 
Virginians. Inconsiderately this violation of the rights 
of property was resented, and several Indians were killed. 
The Cherokees, incensed at receiving such treatment from 
those whom they had but just assisted, vowed revenge. 
Receiving arms from the French, and incited by their 
intrigues, they plunged into a furious war with their for- 
mer friends, and commenced a desolating incursion on the 
frontiers. Virginia and the two Carolinas combined for 
mutual defence. A large force marched into the territo- 
ries of the Cherokees, when the Indians submitted without 
bloodshed, and concluded a treaty of peace. But, their 
chiefs being insulted by the governor of South Carolina, 



THEIR SUBVERSION. 205 

they renewed their incursions. General Amherst, on Bk.iv. 
being made acquainted with the dangers to which the ch.4. 
southern colonies were subjected, sent a detachment of a. d. 
Highlanders, under Colonel Montgomery, to their relief. 1760. 
These, united with provincial troops, marched into the 
Cherokee country, committing most destructive ravages, 
and routing the Indians in a great battle near Etchoe, 
their central settlement. He then withdrew his troops 
from Carolina, and rejoined the British army, 1760. 

As soon as he was gone, the Indians rallied, and com- Defeat 
mitted new ravages. A second application was made to chero- 
General Amherst; and the Highland regiment, under ^^es. 
Colonel Grant, was ordered back to Carolina. New levies 
were also made by the provinces in 1761, and Grant was 
enabled to prosecute hostilities at the head of twenty-six 
hundred men. On the tenth of June, he encountered 
the Indians where Montgomery had fought the year be- 
fore, and routed them with great slaughter, laying waste 
their corn-fields and villages. The defeated Cherokees 
sought refuge in the mountain defiles, and, humbled and 
subdued, sued for peace, which was granted; and the 
colonies enjoyed complete repose. 

Nor were English successes limited to the conquest of I'rench 

losses in 

Canada, and the suppression of Indian hostilities. Gua- the west 
daloupe, Martinique, and all the Caribbean Islands, fell ^^^®«- 
into their possession. The French fleet was ruined, and 
England obtained the sovereignty of the seas. 

Meanwhile, George II. died, October 25th, 1760; and Death of 
in the following year, that great man, by whose genius ^^^^^ 
glory had shone upon the British arms, had ceased to be 
minister. George III. did not like the ascendency he 
had gained, and was ambitious of ruling alone. 

Scarcely had Pitt retired, before war broke out between 
Spain and England, by which the former lost Havana, and 
18 



206 PEACE OF PARIS. 

B^- 1^- incurred the ruin of her colonial commerce. The brilliant 
Ch. i. successes of the English, not in America merelj, but in 
A. D. India and every quarter of the globe, induced the hum- 
1763. bled powers of France and Spain to enter into negotiations 
Treaty for peacc. In 1763, a treaty was signed at Paris, by 
of I'aris. -^ijicli Great Britain retained Canada, and indeed the 
whole country east of the Mississippi, New Orleans alono 
excepted. Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, together 
with New Orleans, was ceded to Spain. Havana was 
exchanged for Florida. France lost all the territory on 
the American continent for which she had so zealously 
contended ; and nothing remained of her conquests but 
her language, religion and laws, which even British legis- 
lation could not take away from the habitans of Canada, 
or the planters of Louisiana. 
Its bene- ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ peace more grateful than to the colonies 
ficiai in North America, who had borne a large share of the 

effect on ' .° 

the CO- burdens of the war, but who, by its glorious termination, 
lonies. (jQui(j 1qq]£ forward to security and prosperity. British 
glory and American safety seemed to be identified. There 
never was a time when the colonies were bound to Great 
Britain by such general sentiments of affection and 
esteem, gratitude and hope. Had England cherished 
these sentiments, the colonies might have been long pre- 
served. But the avarice, jealousy and pride in which 
England indulged, weakened those sentiments which con- 
stituted her real power; and a spirit of resistance was 
enkindled, which gradually ripened into a revolutionary 
passion. 
Their ^0^ did this long war with the French and Indians 

conti- arrest, though it may have impeded, the growth of the 
'growth, colonies. In physical resources, as well as in population, 
they all continued to increase. The conquest of Canada, 
and the subjection of the eastern Indians, gave a new 



PROSPERITY OF THE COLONIES. 207 

impulse to the settlement of Maine ; and the counties of bk. iv. 
Cumberland and Lincoln were added to York. New Ch. 4. 
settlers occupied the coast, also, from the Kennebec to ^^ d, 
the Penobscot, and emigrants from New England sought 1763. 
the distant territories of the Acadians. 

New Hampshire equally profited by the peace of Paris, New 
from which may be dated the prosperity of the province, f^^^' 
which contained, at this time, over fifty thousand people. 
Emigrants also came from other colonies, now that exter- 
nal danger was removed, and penetrated not only to the 
interior, but even into Vermont, whose " Green Mountain 
Boys" were soon to be distinguished in the struggle with 
the mother country. 

Massachusetts contained at this time a population of Massa- 
two hundred and fifty thousand, of whom over five thou- ^*^"- 

•^ ' setts. 

sand were slaves. Connecticut numbered one hundred 
and fifty thousand, with a still greater proportion of slaves. 
Khode Island had forty thousand, of whom one-tenth 
were enslaved. In New England there were five hundred 
and thirty Congregational churches, still characterized for 
Puritan principles. 

New York contained about a hundred and twenty-five New 
thousand people, and its largest town was already cele- ^°^^' 
brated for mercantile thrift and enterprise. No reliable 
account of the population of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, Maryland, or Georgia, has been handed down; 
but all of these colonies kept pace with the others in 
prosperity. About this time, the passion for emigration 
to more western sections began, and the Valley of Wyo- 
ming on the Susquehannah was planted by an association 
from Connecticut 

Virginia at this time contained about two hundred yirgi. 
thousand souls, half of whom were slaves. Tobacco was °^"- 
still the great article which occupied the attention of the 



208 EDUCATION. 

bk. IV. colonists, nearly seventy thousand hogsheads being annu- 
Ch. 4. ally exported. In the more southern colonies, rice and 
j^_ j)^ indigo formed the most important articles of exportation. 
1763. Cotton, which has since become the great staple of the 

South, was not yet cultivated. 
Litera- Nor wcro the interests of education neglected with the 
thr^ts. naaterial growth of the colonies. New schools and col- 
leges arose. Lawyers began to obtain more public consi- 
deration. The fine arts were advanced by Copley and 
West, and eminent scholars appeared in every department 
to which genius was directed. 



BOOK V 



CHAPTEE I. 

THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 

The American Kevolution, in whatever light it may bk.v. 
be viewed, was the grand event of the eighteenth century, Ch. i. 
and one of the most momentous, in its consequences, in ^jy^ 
the whole history of society. It excited intense interest 1763 
throughout the civilized world, when it took place, and 
its effect has been constantly progressive. All other sub- 
jects of American history are certainly tame in compari- 
son with it. It is memorable for the great deeds of theAme 
heroes, for the development of unknown energies, for the ^^^, 
establishment of a new western empire, for the shock it ^^'^^ 
gave to political power in Europe, for the impulse it com- 
municated to the cause of liberty throughout the world, 
and for the hope it inspired, among all oppressed people, 
of their own future triumph. 

This great event might have been delayed, had the 
government of England been gifted with greater political 
sagacity, and Ijad it exercised more prudence and modera- 
tion. But blindness, arrogance, and a spirit of oppression, 
are as natural to an unboundedly prosperous nation, as 
the development of great energies among those who are 
industrious and self-reliant. 

When the peace of Paris was signed; England had 

18 * (209) 



to 
1775. 

Great- 
ness of 



ncan rt»- 



210 POWER OP ENGLAND. 

B'^-^- reached tlie height of her prosperity and power. Her 
Ch. 1. ships whitened the ocean. Her armies occupied nearly 
A. D. all the strongest fortresses in America and Asia. Her 
1763 colonial possessions were greater than any nation had ever 
^^2r possessed before. Her empire comprehended the extre- 
mities of the known world. Her manufactures were 
atTile^*^ sought and prized in every corner of the earth. Her 
peace of wealth was prodigious and unbounded. Her merchants 
were richer than ordinary princes. Her nobles formed 
the proudest aristocracy which ancient or modern times 
had ever seen. Her triumphs of art, science and literar 
ture, were the glory and the boast of the age. In every 
thing she was great and unsurpassed. No wonder that 
sentimeats of pride were engendered. 
British But pride is the curse of man. It is as blind as it is 
and^r sclf-complaccnt. It ever goeth before destruction. Eng- 
rogance. land, intoxicated with prosperity, overlooked the incipient 
greatness of her colonies, underrated their strength, and 
trifled with their affections. She imposed upon them bur- 
dens which were irreconcilable with freedom. She cast 
upon them insults which not even imbecility will bear. 
She forced upon them rebellion, without considering the 
terrible power of union among those who felt that they 
were capable of freedom. 
Feeling -^^^ could any European power have long fettered the 
of the CO- energies of continually expanding colonies, conscious of 
strength, as well as of justice and right. They had grown 
from feeble settlements to powerful States, and there 
seemed no limit to future increase. There was scope for 
every variety of talent, and every form of enterprise. 
The people were born free — had been nursed in freedom, 
had ever loved it passionately, had ever defended it with 
enthusiasm. They had also, from the first, been taught 
self-reliance. They had multiplied in spite of all obsta- 



COLONIAL GRIEVANCES. 211 

cles. They had discovered their own strength in various bk.v. 
intercolonial wars. They had measured themselves with Ch. i. 
regular troops from the mother country. They had a. d. 
learned the art of self-defence. 1763 

When, then, they perceived that England regarded j'^ 
them, not as children, but as servants — that they were to 
be kept in base dependence — that their interests were to J^^^^^^**^ 
be made subservient to those of British merchants with 
and the pride of British nobles — that, as they grew ruie.^ 
strong, additional burdens would be imposed, — they 
resolved no longer to wear the yoke. Why should they 
submit to evils which they could throw off? When love 
was weakened, when interest no longer bound them, and 
when the desire for absolute independence was nearly uni- 
versal, was it not in the nature of things that a struggle 
for liberty should one day be made, and, when made, be 
crowned with glory and honour ? 

It was the will of God that a great and free nation 
should arise in the West. And it is as absurd to specu- 
late on the means by which this event could have been 
prevented, as it is to wonder why the old Roman Empire 
should have passed away, when the vices of self-interest 
bad perverted all orders and classes among the people, 
and prepared the way for violence and anarchy. 

Yet the story of English aggression is interesting, and British 
teaches lessons of moral wisdom. The desire to domineer, g^^.^^ 
arising from great pride and prosperity, on the one hand; 
and the spirit of liberty, fanned by unnumbered influ- 
ences, on the other, gave rise to the American Revolu- 
tion. The consideration of these conflicting principles 
and interests is the present subject of our inquiry. 

It has already been shown that Great Britain, from the 
time of Cromwell, had enforced a system of commercial 
restrictions. The various navigation acts had fettered the 



212 ENGLISH COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS. 

bk. V. commerce of the colonies, and operated unfavourably on 
Ch. 1. American manufactures. To these evils the colonists had 
A. D. a* length submitted, though always with reluctance and 
1763 expostulation. The moral effect of these restrictions was 
^0 to create alienation on the part of the colonies, which 
* constantly increased with their growth, and would in time 
have alone occasioned a disruption. This event was not 
wholly unforeseen in England, but was placed at some 
remote and indefinite period — a notion encouraged by the 
mutual jealousies and divisions of the colonies, and an 
exaggerated importance attached to the power of Great 
Britain. 
Contem- Scarcely any British statesman, with the exception of 
nluitar ^^^^ Camden, perceived the necessity of wholly removing 
force in thcsc restrictions, especially after the conquest of Canada, 
ca. which had revealed to the colonies new sources of internal 
strength. But such was the infatuation of government, 
that it resolved to extend rather than curtail the control 
exercised by the parent State ; and scarcely was the peace 
of Paris announced, before it declared its intention of 
maintaining permanently a regular army in America, and 
supporting it at the expense of the colonies. No declara- 
tion could have been more unfortunate, especially as all 
external danger was now removed, and as a regular British 
force for protection had not been sent, when, owing to the 
molestations of both French and Indians, their presence 
was really necessary. 

Another cause of alienation was the attempt of the 
British government to suppress smuggling in the colonies, 
by calling in the aid of the naval forces on the coast. All 
the commanders of ships-of-war cruising in the American 
seas, received commissions from government to act as 
custom-house ofl&cers, and were authorized to receive an 
ample share of contraband or confiscated cargoes as the 



SCHEMES or TAXATION. 213 

reward of their disagreeable duties. These naval officers bk. v. 
were then generally rough, boisterous and impetuous, and Ch. i, 
often acted with inconsiderate zeal, making constant blun- x. D. 
ders and mistakes, which called forth the indignant remon- 1765. 
strances of those merchants whose ships they had perhaps 
unjustly seized or detained. 

Moreover, the British governor and colonial custom- contra- 
house authorities had, for a long time, connived and ^^^ 
winked at a contraband trade between the colonies and 
the West India Islands, inasmuch as articles of British 
manufacture were, to a considerable extent, advantageously 
disposed of. But the naval officers did not regard the 
advantages which the colonies reaped, without injury to 
the mother country, and were prompt to seize indiscrimi- 
nately all ships conducting those branches of trade which 
hitherto had passed without question or notice. 

The colonies, indignant, proclaimed their intention to The co- 
purchase, in future, no British commodities which were refiteto 
not absolutely necessary, since they could not pay for them p^^- 
with the gold they had hitherto procured from French British 
and Spanish colonies. The British ministers yielded so ^^'^^^' 
far to their complaints as to authorize, by act of Parlia- 
ment, the commerce which had previously been considered 
contraband, but loaded its most valuable articles with 
heavy duties. 

Had the English government been content with this contem- 
mode of raising a revenue in America, the Revolution ^^^^^^ 
might have been delayed. But it was not. It was tion. 
resolved to levy a domestic tax upon the colonies, on the 
ground that, as they were protected by British arms, they 
should contribute something towards that protection. 

The colonies looked upon the project of taxation with 
other eyes. They regarded it as the beginning of a sys- 
tem which would be indefinitely extended in proportion as 



214 HOW VIEWED BY THE COLONIES. 

Bk.v. they were willing or able to meet the demands of British 
Ch. 1. rapacity. They saw no justice or right in direct taxation, 
^ J) when they were not represented in Parliament. The only 
1765. connection which they admitted, was the recognition of 
Colonial their entire equality with Englishmen at home — as enti- 
viewsof tig(j iQ the full privileges of Englishmen, if they were to 
tax- share their burdens. Moreover, they no longer desired 
ation. ^i^g protection which England now was ready to bestow. 
They looked upon the army to be sent among them, as a 
means of coercing obedience to tyrannical injunctions, — 
not to save them from foreign attacks. They had taken 
care of themselves in times of weakness and danger. They 
surely could do so now, when dangers were removed, and 
when the means of resisting them had increased. They 
were willing to be ruled in accordance with those royal 
charters which, from time to time, had been given them. 
They were even willing to assist the mother country in 
expelling her enemies from adjoining territories. They 
professed the strongest attachment to her laws, her inte- 
rests, and her institutions. They sought no political 
influence in England, and waived their rights as English- 
jtg in. men to be represented in Parliament. But they could 
justice, not see by what right they should be made to pay for 
English aggrandizement, or contribute to those wars by 
which England alone was benefited. If they could be 
taxed without their consent in one thing, they could be 
taxed to an indefinite extent, and would incur the danger 
of a mean and ignominious subjection — would fare worse 
than Ireland — would be reduced to the condition of a 
conquered country — would become what Sicily, and Gaul, 
and Greece, and Africa, were to ancient Rome — what 
parts of the East have become to modern European pow- 
ers, — provinces to be rifled, robbed, and enslaved. 

The scheme of taxation originated with George Gren- 



SCHEMES OF GRENVILLE. 216 

ville, successor of the Eaii of Bute, as prime minister to bk. v. 
George III. He was a man of great talent, but inconsi- Ch. i. 
derate, unpractical, and rash. He had already shown a. d. 
himself unfit to contend with the spirit of the age, by his 1765. 
impolitic prosecution of Wilkes for a political libel. But George 
then, it should also be said, the great body of the British ^^^' 
aristocracy shared with him the delusion respecting Ame- 
rica. His scheme of taxation met with general favour. 

Not so in America. As soon as his design was revealed. His plan 
it excited alarm, aversion, indignation, resentment. The ation?" 
project was discussed in all the Provincial Assemblies, 
and was universally condemned as unjust, oppressive, and 
hateful. From all the colonies, petitions were prepared 
and presented to the English government. They sent 
agents to England, to remonstrate with the minister. 
They printed pamphlets and made speeches without end. 

But, in spite of remonstrances, and protestations, and 1765. 
appeals from colonial agents, especially from Franklin, stamp 
Ingersoll and Jackson, the minister was resolved to pro- 
ceed; and accordingly, early in the year 1765, brought a 
bill into Parliament for collecting a duty on stamps. The 
tax, it was true, was light, but the principle involved 
gave importance to the precedent. 

Then followed the debates in Parliament, in which Debate 
William Pitt, General Conway, and Colonel Barre, distin- uament 
guished themselves in opposition to the ministers. In 
reply to the speech of Charles Townshend, who styled the 
colonies " children planted by our care, nourished by our 
indulgence, and protected by our arms,'' Colonel Barr6 
made this ever-memorable reply, preserved by all histo- 
rians : " They planted by your care ! No ! your oppres- 
sions planted them in America. They fled from your 
tyranny to a then uncultivated and inhospitable country, 
where they exposed themselves to almost all the hardships 



216 



THE STAMP ACT. 



^^•^- to which human nature is liable ; and, among others, to 
cii- 1- the cruelties of a savage foe, the most subtle and formi- 
A. D, dable of any people upon the face of the earth. They 
1765. nourished by your indulgence ! They grew up by your 
Eio- neglect. As soon as you began to care about them, that 
of 001.^ ^^^^ ^^^ exercised in sending persons to rule them who 
Barre ^ere perhaps the deputies of deputies, sent to spy out 
their liberties, and to misrepresent their actions — men, 
promoted to the highest seats of justice, some of whom 
were glad, by going to a foreign country, to escape being 
brought to the bar of a court of justice in your own. 
They protected by your arms ! They have nobly taken 
up arms in your defence, and have exerted a shining 
valour for the defence of a country whose frontier was 
drenched in blood. Believe me — remember, I this day 
told you so — that the same spirit of freedom which actu- 
ated those sons of liberty at first, will accompany them 
still, — that they are a people jealous of their liberties, 
and will vindicate them if ever they should be violated.'' 
Passage In spite of the warnings of the distinguished orator 
Stamp and soldier, who had served in America, and of the peti- 
^^^' tions of London merchants, and of the remonstrances of 
the colonies, the bill passed the House of Commons by 
a very large majority — 250 to 50 — and was not even ob- 
structed in the House of Lords. So great was the national 
delusion ! 
Its efiFect The ncws of the passage of this fatal act, March 22d, 
m the 1765 created an immense sensation throughout the colo- 

colonies. ^ ' ^ .... 

nies. Patrick Henry in Virginia, James Otis in Massa- 
chusetts, Trumbull in Connecticut, and others scarcely 
less distinguished, lifted up their indignant voices against 
it in the various Assemblies of which they were members. 
There was everywhere a general ferment. In Boston and 
Providence there were popular riots. The clergy preached 



REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT. 217 

political sermons. The Stamp Act was both ridiculed Bk.v. 
and denounced ; and on the day when the execution of Ch. i. 
the act was appointed to commence, the first of November, ^, j)^ 
every distributor of stamps in America had resigned his 1766. 
office. Not a stamp was to be seen. Nor was this all. 
Associations were formed not to import any more British 
^oods until the hateful act was repealed ; and that sheep 
alight be increased, and American manufactures encour- 
aged, people agreed not to eat lamb or mutton. 
f Grenville was not prepared for this outcry. The un- iiefigna- 
popularity of the measure, and the difficulty of enforcing qJ!^J^ 
it, together with the odium which he incurred by the viHe. 
prosecution of Wilkes, induced him to resign the reins of 
government. 

Grenville was succeeded by the Marquis of Rocking- The 
ham, one of whose first measures was to brine; in a bill f"*:^" 

^ ° inghain 

for the repeal of the Stamp Act, although the Commons aciminis- 
insisted upon their right to tax America. Pitt supported 
the repeal, and maintained that the kingdom had no right 
to tax the colonies ; and his decisive avowal made a pro- 
found impression on the House. But the ministry by no 
means took the ground of Pitt. They placed the repeal 
on the score of expediency. On this gi'ound alone, the 
Commons, by a vote of 275 to 167, voted for the repeal Repeal 
of the tax, February 22d, 1766. The examination of g^^^^ 
Benjamin Franklin as a witness before the bar of the Act. 
House, had also great influence in producing repeal. He 
was then an agent in England for Pennsylvania, and his 
prompt and pointed replies gained him great credit, both 
for genius and extent of information. 

The news of the repeal produced transports of joy in joy in 
America, mingled with surprise, exultation, and gratitude, ^^^g^ °' 
The Provincial Assemblies voted addresses of thanks to 
his majesty, and to royal ministers and distinguished 
19 



218 LORD CHATHAM. 

bk. V. statesmen, especially to Lord Camden, Pitt, and Barr^. 
ch. 1. Several provinces voted statues to the king, to Pitt, and 
^_ P_ to Camden. Faneuil Hall was adorned with full-length 
1766. pictures of Pitt and Barre, the former of whom became a 
popular idol. Professions of attachment to the mother 
country again became general and cordial. 
The su- 3^^*? ^^^6^ *^^ fi^st flush of popular enthusiasm, new 
gar Act. subjects of complaiut arose. The Stamp Act was indeed 
repealed, but the Sugar Act remained in force. More- 
over, royal troops were sent to America, as if to overawe 
the people, and compel obedience. It was reported that 
new bodies were to arrive. But the crowning evil was a 
new scheme of colonial taxation. 

This originated with Charles Townshend, Chancellor of 
the Exchequer. The Marquis of Rockingham retained 
oflBce but a few months, and was succeeded by the Duke 
of Grafton, in August, 1766, as First Lord of the Trea- 
wiiiiam sury. Pitt, recently created Earl of Chatham, was nomi- 
Pit<>- nally the prime minister, but was unable to attend to 
business on account of ill-health. Nor had he much 
influence on his colleagues, who were, in most instances, 
tories ; and they were left to pursue their own policy. It 
was a blot on the fair fame of this great statesman, who 
had hitherto sustained the American cause, that he con- 
sented to form a part of an administration which acted in 
direct opposition to the course he had uniformly pursued. 
It is true, he still opposed his colleagues in the council 
chamber ; but his voice was no longer heard in the House 
of Commons, the scene of his glory, in vindication of the 
cause of liberty. Could he have been seduced by the 
glitter of a coronet and the title of a lord ? Certain it is, 
that no man ever made a greater mistake than he, in ac- 
cepting a seat among "the Incurables." He gained 
social rank, dignity, ease, titles. But he lost popularity, 



LORD CHATHAM. 219 

power, and self-respect. The " Great Commoner/' who bk. v. 
might, as a popular leader, have arrested the calamities ch. i. 
which so soon befell his country, now deprived of his ^ jy 
strength, which lay in the affections of the people, re- 1766. 
lapsed into indolence and spleen, and was laid on the HisfoUy 
shelf as a man who had parted with his secret ; a Samson '^°^ ^^°g 

made a 

shorn of his locks, without his eyes, the sport of his se- peer. 
ducers, the pity and reproach of those whom he had once 
defended. Great was the fall of Pitt when he descended 
from his glorious position as ruler of the House of Com- 
mons and idol of the nation, to be a nominal minister and 
a powerless earl. No wonder that he languished and 
died. 

A tory ministry, which hated liberty, an infatuated 1767. 
king, who repented, like the Egyptians of old, the con- i^"^«8 
cessions he had made, and the courtiers, who affected to tea," Ac. 
lament the humiliation of royalty, resolved to retrieve 
their dignity. Ambition and pride prevailed over wisdom 
and moderation. It was resolved to impose a tax on the 
colonies, as the sign of their dependence and degradation ; 
perhaps with the hope of ultimately increasing the na- 
tional revenue. Accordingly, Townshend introduced his 
bill into the House of Commons, May 1767, to impose 
duties on all glass, lead, painters' colours, tea, and paper, 
imported into America. It met with scarcely any oppo- 
sition, and was triumphantly passed. 

SuUenness, indignation, and gloom, returned to the orro- 

colonies on the report of this new taxation ; not that they ^'^'f" ^ 
^ 7 .7 and out- 

dreaded the burden, but they hated the principle. Trust cry in 

in Parliament was irreparably weakened. ConMence in 

royal ministers fled. New combinations of opposition 

were organized. The press, the pulpit, and the senate 

chamber, teemed with invective and reproach. The cry 

of alarm was raised. The appeal to patriotism was made 



Ameri- 
ca. 



220 AMERICAN PATRIOTS. 

bk. V. from ten thousand tongues in every section of the 



Ch. 1. country. 

^ J) Foremost among the patriots of Massachusetts were 
1767. Thomas Gushing, James Bowdoin, Samuel Cooper, Josiah 
Patriot- Quincy, Robert Treat Paine, John Winthrop, James Otis, 
ism of and Joseph Hawley; all of whom were men of great 
Ameri- social positiou, talcuts, and weight of character. Equally 
cans. distinguished as popular leaders were John Rutledge, 
Henry Lawrence, David Ramsay, in South Carolina, and 
Patrick Henry, Peyton Randolph, and Richard Henry 
Lee, in Virginia. In all the colonies there arose orators 
to plead the cause and stimulate the energies of freemen. 
John Dickenson, in Pennsylvania, in a treatise called 
Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer, warned his country- 
men not to be deluded by the moderate rate of the new 
duties, designed only to prepare their necks for a weight 
which would bear them to the ground, while the inhabi- 
tants of Boston passed resolutions to discontinue the im- 
portation of all British commodities. The Assembly of 
Massachusetts addressed to all the sister colonies a circular 
letter, inviting them to co-operate in some general scheme 
of resistance, and nearly all the provincial assemblies 
acceded to the overture. 
ciianges In the mean time, some changes had occurred in the 
British ^^itish ministry. Townsend had died, and was succeeded 
minis- l^y Lord North ; a man devoted to royal prerogative. Lord 
Hillsborough, also a distinguished partisan of the crown, 
had been entrusted with the management of American 
aifairs, which had been withdrawn from Lord Shelburne. 
This latter nobleman strongly reprobated the conduct of 
Massachusetts respecting the circular letter, and instructed 
Grovernor Barnard to require of the Assembly its disap- 
probation of the act as hasty and rash. The minister also 
wrote a circular letter to all the provincial governors, 



try. 



OPPOSITION TO BRITISH LAWS OF TRADE. 221 

breathing insolence, folly, and spleen, which occasioned, bk. v. 
of course, general disgust, and increased the rising disaf- cii. i. 
fection. ^ j,^ 

Additional cause of offence arose in America from the 1768. 
rigid enforcement of the laws of trade, which called forth ^^^ 
opposition and inflammatory publications. The merchants cause of 
were irritated by suits for past breaches of revenue laws, 
and by new strictness in the collecting of duties. A sloop 
laden with wine from Madeira, belonging to Hancock, 
was seized on the charge of smuggling a part of the cargo, 
although nothing was done contrary to custom and usage. 
A riot ensued, which resulted in the flight of the revenue 
commissioners to Castle Island, where a company of Brit- 
ish artillery was stationed. In the midst of this ferment 
Barnard acquainted the General Court with the letter he 
had received from Lord Hillsborough, which communica- 
tion excited still more the patriotic spirit. The House 
refused to rescind its measures, and justified itself in a 
remonstrance to the Earl of Hillsborough. On the fol- 1768. 
lowing day, July 1, 1768, the governor dissolved the as- ^J"^"'. 
sembly, and the town and corporation retaliated by Massa- 
denouncing him as a traitor, and choosing a convention to ^^^ 
meet in Boston to consider the public danger. Tliis con- 
vention was regarded by the governor, and by the British 
ministry, as a treasonable and criminal association, and 
therefore its petitions and acts were wholly disregarded. 
Moreover, Boston was regarded as in a state bordering on Troops 
revolt, and therefore it was occupied by two regiments, Jo'^^n' 
while the harbour was commanded by a fleet of seven 
ships of war. The people were required to furnish quar- 
ters for the troops. They peremptorily refused, and the 
State House was accordingly seized by the governor, and 
the town overawed by a military garrison stationed in it 
as a citadel. The Common was covered with tents, and 
19* 



90O 



PATRIOTIC ARDOUR IN VIRGINIA. 



bk-V- the streets were paraded by sentinels. Boston had all the 
Ch. 1. appearance of a town under martial law. 
A. B. The House of Representatives, on assembling in May 
1769. 1769, resolved that it was inconsistent with their dignity 
Eemo- and freedom to deliberate in the midst of an armed force, 
^ °^ and petitioned the governor to remove the trooops from 
gisia- Boston. Upon his refusal they declined to enter upon 
business, and the governor adjourned the court to Cam- 
bridge, and finally prorogued it as unmanageable, and 
returned to England to lay his complaints before govern- 
ment, leaving the administration in the hands of Lieuten- 
ant-governor Hutchinson. 
Spirit of In Virginia the spirit of resistance was equally marked. 
aTce in -^^^ Grcneral Assembly unanimously passed resolutions 
Virgi- that the sole right of taxation belonged to the representa- 
tives of the people, and that all trials for treason should be 
conducted in the colonial courts ; for which offence it was 
dissolved by the governor. Lord Botetourt. The members, 
instead of dispersing, reassembled in a dwelling-house, 
and, after choosing their late speaker, Peyton Randolph, 
for moderator, unanimously signed an agreement to import 
no more British goods, to which the people, throughout 
the colony, acceded. 

Inspired by the example of Virginia, the Assembly of 
South Carolina refused obedience to the act for providing 
quarters for British troops, and passed resolutions similar 
to those of the Virginia Assembly. Maryland, Delaware, 
New York, and Georgia, adopted substantially the same 
resolutions. Indeed, the non-importation agreement was 
generally adopted throughout the colony, and everywhere 
the right of American legislatures to supersede the autho- 
rity of Parliament was discussed and advocated. 

Nothing produced greater irritation among the colonies, 
and led to a revolutionary spirit more decidedly, than the 



OFFENSIVE DUTIES REPEALED. 223 

quartering of troops in Boston. It was the occasion of Bk. v. 
perpetual tumult. A mob of boys and men made it a ch. i. 
constant practice to insult the military, and the military, ^^ j)_ 
at length provoked beyond endurance, fired upon the 1770. 
people. This act of violence created such an excitement 
that the governor, Hutchinson, found it expedient to re- 
move the troops from Boston. 

About this time, 1770, Lord North succeeded the i-ord 
Duke of Grafton as prime minister to George III., and, repeals 
in order to pacify the Americans, yet still maintain the ^^*^®^' 

■\ *' . . except 

right of taxation, brought forward a motion in Parliament on tea. 
to repeal all obnoxious duties, except that on tea. This 
was carried by a large majority, and his measure became 
a law. It had in some respects the efifect he intended. 
It furnished an excuse to the colonies to abandon the non- 
importation agreeements, which were now limited to the 
article of tea alone. But it was far from allaying the 
spirit of disafi*ection, soon destined to burst out into a 
revolutionary storm. New disputes constantly agitated 
the colonies. 

These arose from the continued restraints on colonial New di* 
manufactures ; from the presence of large bodies of foreign p^**®* 
troops ; from rumours of a plan to establish episcopacy by 
lawj from the support of royal governors by the govern- 
ment at home, thus destroying all dependence on colonial 
legislatures ; from repeated dissolutions of colonial Assem- 
blies by royal governors, and from the accounts which 
these governors transmitted to England of the state of 
the provinces, which were considered as libellous and 
unjust. These, and various impolitic measures of the 
English government, hastened the crisis. 

Nothing was more injudicious than the conduct of the 
ministry respecting the tea duty act. By the constant 
refusal of the colonies to use this luxury, except so far as 



224 MINISTERIAL OBSTINACY. 

^g"^- it could be smuggled by the French, Dutch, Danes, and 
Ch. 1. Swedes, tea had accumulated in the warehouses of the 
A. D. East India Company to the amount of seventeen millions 
1770. of pounds. The government would not repeal the duty 
of threepence per pound, and the Company did not like 
to lose their commercial profits. Hitherto, a heavy tax 
had been imposed on the exportation of tea from Eng- 
land. This export duty was removed by the government, 
under the impression that the Americans would now pur- 
chase tea, since its price was reduced. Accordingly, the 
East India Company freighted several ships with the arti- 
cle, and sent them to the various American cities, hoping 
to dispose of it. But this course only showed how igno- 
rant both British merchants and ministers were of the 
Opposi- tamper of the American people. The inhabitants of 
tion in Charlestown suffered the tea to be landed, but deposited 
Hies to it in public cellars, and locked it up from either sale or 
the duty ^gg^ rpjjg citizeus of Ncw York and Philadelphia pre- 

OH X6£L* 

vailed on the consignees to disclaim their functions, and 
forced the ships to return to London with their cargoes. 
The Bostonians were not so quiet. A mob of fifty men, 
dressed like Indians, boarded the ships, staved the chests, 
and threw the tea into the water. This affair happened 
1773. on the 16th of December, 1773 ; and when the news of 
it reached England, the rage of ministers was excessive. 
Boston In their indignation, they brought a bill into Parliament 
B^^i* to shut up the port of Boston, and remove the seat of 
government to Salem, which passed almost unanimously. 
This was followed by another, which gave the appointment 
of nearly all officers to the governor, without the approval 
of the Council, which was virtually an abrogation of the 
charter of Massachusetts. A third bill was also passed, 
which provided that all persons charged with murders 
committed in support of government, should be tried in 



SCHEMES OP RESISTANCE. 225 

England. This was again followed by a fourth act, which bk. v. 
provided for quartering troops in America, April, 1774. Ch. i. 
The liberties and chartered rights of the colonies were a. d. 
now plainly assailed. They were regarded as rebellious, 1774. 
and only to be brought to terms by a military force. Troops 
Ministers foolishly resolved to terrify them into submis- ^^^^ *° 
sion, notwithstanding the expostulations of Chatham, 
Burke, Barre, Fox, Conway, Dunning, and other illus- 
trious statesmen, who perceived that these severe mea- 
sures would end in war, and that war would lead to the 
everlasting separation of the colonies from England. 

The colonies, distressed, embarrassed and indignant. Resist- 
now meditated a congress of delegates to take measures ^^tem- 
for their common defence, and advance their mutual inte- plated, 
rests. The people everywhere were excited by popular 
orators. Inflammatory publications were openly circu- 
lated. Associations were formed for the purchase of arms 
and ammunition. Proceedings in the courts of justice 
were suspended, and ordinary business was neglected, in 
the general ferment of impassioned feeling. Nothing was 
thought of but resistance. Thomas Jefferson wrote a 
pamphlet in which sentiments of independence were 
broached. The spirit of liberty animated all classes from 
New Hampshire to Georgia. 

And yet the colonies did not, at this time, contemplate And r©- 
a separation. Nor were they prepared to plunge into a ^athT* 
general revolt. They were only irritated and indignant than in. 
to an extraordinary degree. They were resolved on resist- encr " 
ance, rather than independence. It is true, there were 
those who saw that resistance would lead to war, and war 
to separation ; but such men were in advance of public sen- 
timent. In spite of the invasion of long-cherished rights, 
there was yet a lurking love of the mother country, which, 
had it been cherished, would have delayed the Revolution. 



226 MEETING OF CONGRESS. 

bk-Y. This was the time, if it were ever to be, when the 

Ch. 1. colonies should have been coerced by an overwhelming 

A. D. military force, before measures of resistance were matured. 

1774. But the British government neither sought to heal the 

DisafiFeo- wouuds which their impolitic measures had inflicted, nor 

tion of adopted a bold and prompt course of intimidation. Pitt 

the CO- ^ , , ^ 

lonies. would either have refrained from taxation, or would have 
sent an army of forty thousand men to subdue the rebel- 
lious colonies. But every measure of the present minis- 
ters proved a blunder, increasing the general discontent 
and irritation, without producing any decided advantage. 
They supposed that the Boston Port Bill would produce 
jealousy and disunion among the different towns of Mas- 
- sachusetts, by dividing among them the commerce pre- 
viously enjoyed by the metropolis. But, on the contrary, 
it produced a strong feeling of generous disdain, sympathy, 
and co-operation. The people of Marblehead offered the 
use of their wharves and warehouses to the Boston mer- 
chants. The citizens of Salem also refused to avail them- 
selves of the misfortunes of their neighbours. 
Meeting In the midst of this general ferment, the contemplated 
gress^ Congress assembled at Philadelphia, September 5th. It 
was composed of delegates from all the colonies except 
Georgia ; and as these were chosen by the several provin- 
cial legislatures, the national mind was fairly represented. 
The instructions which they received, however, only 
authorized them to deliberate on the means to secure the 
rights and liberties of America as a colonial possession of 
Great Britain. Bevolt was not contemplated, although 
it may have been hastened in consequence of the assembly. 
Its srreat ^^ ^^is Cougress, Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was 
^*-'^- chosen President. It consisted of fifty-three delegates, 
all of whom were men of character and influence. Among 
the more distinguished of them were Samuel and John 



COMMITTEES OF SAFETY. 227 

AdamS; of Massachusetts; Sherman and Dean, of Con- bk. v. 
necticut; Livingston and Jay, of New York; Henry, ch. i. 
Washington, and Lee, of Virginia; and the two Rut- ^ jy^ 
ledges, of South Carolina. The proceedings were con- 1774. 
ducted with closed doors, and with great unanimity — with 
prudence, talent, and despatch. It was resolved that 
obedience was not due to any of the recent acts of Par- 
liament, and that Massachusetts should be sustained in her 
resistance to what was universally considered to be unjust 
and unconstitutional. A ^* Declaration of Colonial Rights" Deciara. 
was voted. A protest was made against standing armies iJJghts. 
maintained in the colonies without their consent. All 
the immunities hitherto enjoyed by the colonies were 
claimed as established rights. The Sugar Act, the Stamp 
Act, the Quartering Acts, the Tea Act, the Boston Port 
Bill, the act for the regulation of the government of 
Massachusetts, and the two acts for the trial in Great 
Britain of offences committed in America, were enume- 
rated as violations of the rights of the colonies. In order 
to enforce these rights, it was agreed to hold no commer- 
cial intercourse with Great Britain and the West Indies, 
and to take every measure to encourage domestic manu- 
factures and the breeding of sheep. 

While preparations were thus making for the American Boston 
Union, affairs were fast hastening to a crisis in Massachu- fortmed. 
setts. The military forces which had been sent out to 
coerce or watch the colony, were commanded by General 
Gage, who had succeeded Hutchinson as governor. He 
fortified Boston Neck, and cut off all communication of 
the town with the country, justifying, all the while, his 
military preparations on the plea of self-defence. Con- 
gress, in turn, adopted defensive measures, and appointed commit. 
a Committee of Safety, at the head of which was John JT^// 

•' ' Safety, 

Hancock, with power to call out the militia. It also took 



228 EMBARRASSMENT OP PARLIAMENT. 

Bg-v- measures for the defence of the province, and for procur- 
Ch. 1. ing military stores. Glage denounced these proceedings ; 
A. D. but none, save his own officials, paid any attention to his 
1774. proclamation. The other cities of the Union appointed 
committees of safety, volunteers were everywhere enrolled, 
and arms and ammunition were seized. The country was 
generally aroused by the expectation of serious conflicts, 
and all things indicated an approaching convulsion. 
Perplex- Great Britain received the report of these proceedings, 
tItiL ^^^ ^^ *^^ general state of insubordination, with any feel- 
ment. ings but thosc of indifference. The cabinet was perplexed, 
and Parliament was agitated. The more experienced and 
profound of British statesmen perceived the importance 
Effort of of the crisis. Lord Chatham resumed his seat in the 
Chat House of Lords, notwithstanding his age and infirmities, 
iiam. and attempted to arouse his countrymen to a sense of the 
great difficulties in which they were so unappily involved. 
He besought ministers to withdraw the troops from Bos- 
ton, and revoke their obnoxious acts. He showed the 
folly of metaphysical refinements about the right of taxa- 
tion, when a continent was in arms. He spoke of the 
means thus far employed for enforcing obedience as inef- 
ficient and ridiculous. He panegyrized the American 
Congress and the American people. The Marquis of 
Rockingham and Lord Shelburne supported his motion. 
Lord Camden, as an ex-chancellor and constitutional law- 
yer, declared that England had no right to tax America. 
Burke, In the House of Commons, Mr. Burke, Colonel Barre, 
"^nd^Fox ^^^ ^^^' -^^^J proposed conciliatory measures. '' My hold 
on the colonies,' ' said Mr. Burke, that great master of 
moral wisdom, " is the close affection which grows from 
common names, from kindred blood, from similar privi- 
lege, and from equal protection. These are the ties, 
which, though light as air, are as strong as links of iron. 



WARNINa VOICES. 229 

Let the colonies always keep the idea of their civil privi- Bk.y. 



leges associated with your government; they will cling Ch. i. 
and grapple with you, and no power under heaven will be a. d. 
able to tear them from their allegiance. But let it once 1774. 
be understood that your government may be one thing, 
and their privileges another, then the cement is gone, and 
everything hastens to dissolution. It is the love of the 
people — it is their attachment to your government, from 
their sense of the deep stake they have in such glorious 
institutions, which gives you your army and navy, and 
infuses into both that liberal obedience without which 
your army would be but a base rabble, and your navy 
nothing but rotten timbers." 

Nor were warning voices lifted up against the blunders infatua- 
and folly of government in the British Parliament alone, p^^a. 
Dean Tucker, who foresaw a long war, with all its ex- ment. 
penses, urged, in a masterly treatise, the necessity of at 
once giving to the Americans the liberty they sought. 
Others, who looked upon the colonies in a commercial 
point of view, respectfully petitioned Parliament to repeal 
their offensive enactments. Bollan, Franklin, and Lee, 
agents for the provinces, also petitioned to be heard at the 
bar of the House of Commons, that they might explain 
the subject of grievances, and communicate important 
information. 

But the moral wisdom of Burke, the reasonings of warrj. 
Tucker, and the entreaties of Franklin, were alike lost on ^"? 
an infatuated people. On Lord North, as the great repre- djsro- 
sentative of the English mind, the blame must rest for ^^^ ^ 
ever of not adopting, in season, conciliatory measures, 
before conciliation was impossible — not half measures, 
indefinite and equivocal, but, which could but partially 
allay irritation, when passion was stronger than reason or 
fear ; but rather those which surrendered, in good faith, 
20 



280 COERCION RESOLVED UPON. 

i^g-^- the unjust claims which ministers had advanced. Had 
ch. 1. he, however, at the eleventh hour, withdrawn his offensive 
A. D. nieasures, it is doubtful whether he would have been 
1774. sustained. It was resolved to coerce the colonies, and 
they were accordingly declared to be in a state of rebellion. 
Warlike This declaration was in fact a declaration of war — of no 
Burts common war, but of desperate, deadly strife. It was so 
understood by the popular leaders in America. '^We 
must look back,'' said they, "no more. We, must con- 
quer or die. We are placed between altars smoking with 
the most grateful incense of glory and gratitude on the 
one part, and blocks and dungeons on the other." Ne- 
cessity now stimulated those who before were timid. The 
passion for liberty animated the bold. All classes of 
people now felt that they must choose between slavery 
and freedom, and every one echoed the sentiment of 
Patrick Henry — " Give me liberty, or give me death V " There 
^^^' is," said this impassioned orator, " no longer any room for 
hope. We must Jight. I repeat it, sir, we must fight. 
Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of 
liberty, and in such a country as ours, are invincible by 
any force which our enemy can send against us. Nor is 
there retreat but in submission and slavery. Gentlemen 
ynay cry peace ! peace ! — but there is no peace. The 
war is actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from 
the North will bring to our ears the crash of resounding 
arms," 
Impend- Such wcro the sentiments now boldly declared in the 
lag con- Continental Congress. There was only needed a spark 
tion. to kindle a conflagration. The tide of revolution could 
not now be suppressed. The moment that blood should 
actually be shed in defence of liberty, that moment it 
would prove a signal for a general rising of the people, 
and for the declaration of American independence. 



THE WAR BEGUN. 



231 



The town of Lexington, in IMassachusetts, was the bk- ^^- 
immortal spot where the first altar to perpetual libert}^ Ch. i. 
smoked with human sacrifice — where the fire of rovolu- a. d. 
tion was kindled, which spread, with the rapidity of light- 1775. 
ning, until the whole continent was in a blaze. The fire 

General Gage, having learned that military stores and 
arms were deposited at Concord, resolved to seize them, 
and despatched eight hundred troops, under Colonel 
Smith, for that purpose. His design was suspected, 
alarm bells were rung, the people flew to arms, the pro- 
vincial militia assembled, and preparations for resistance 
were made. The head of the British column confronted, Battle of 
at Lexington, a force of one hundred minute-men. The ^^^^^' 
British officers called upon them to lay down their arms 
and disperse. The order was not obeyed, and the British 
fired. Only eight men were killed ; but the blood of 
eiglit men spilled, was enough to arouse the whole nation. 
The militia around Concord and Lexington rushed to the 
aid of their brethren in arms. The British troops, sur- 
rounded by superior numbers, hastily retreated. They 
were pursued. Their retreat became a rout, and they 
would have been entirely cut off, had not Lord Percy, 
despatched by Gage, advanced to their relief. 

With the battle of Lexington, April 19th, 1775, 
opened the first act of the eventful drama of the American 
Revolution. The die was now cast, and, for seven suc- 
ceeding years, the question for Americans to solve was — 
liberty or slavery. 




REMAKKS. 

To commemorate the important event illustrated above, the Bunker Hill 
Monument, a plain but striking obelisk, has been erected on the site of the 
battle, 62 feet above the level of the sea. The corner-stone was first laid by- 
La Fayette, on the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, in the presence of an im- 
mense concourse of people, June 17th, 182.5. This foundation having been 
found insecure, it was relaid in a more substantial manner, in March, 1S27. 
The monument was completed July 23d, 1S42, at a cost of $119,800. It is sub- 
stantially built of hewn Quincy granite, being 208 feet high from the base to 
the commencement of the apex, and from thence to the summit 13 feet, in all 
221 feet. The interior of the structure is circular, having a diameter of 10 feet 
7 inches at bottom, and 6 feet 4 inches at top, and is ascended by 294 steps. 
The top is an elliptical chamber, 17 feet high, il feet in diameter, with 4 win- 
dows, and presents one of the most splendid views in the United States, com- 
bining in a remarkable degree the beautiful and the sublime. Being the most 
elevated object in the vicinity, this monument will stand in commemoration 
of the gallant patriots who here fought and fell in defence of their country's 
rights, and nobly contributed to the independence of the United States. 

232 



CHAPTER II. 

FIRST CAMPAIGN OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 

The news of the battle of Lexington produced an bk.v. 
immense sensation throughout the colonies. The young ch.2.' 
men of Connecticut, burning with rage and valour, jflew ^ -^ 
to arms, headed by Israel Putnam, who heard the news 1775. 
as he was ploughing in the jSeld. He instantly unyoked -g^^^.^ ^^ 
his team, and marched, with a large body of volunteers, ^^^ ^at- 
to the vicinity of Boston, to join his brethren in arms. Lexin-r- 
Thither also repaired three regiments from New Hamp- ^^' 
shire, one of which was commanded by John Stark. No 
less than twenty thousand men blockaded the British 
troops in Boston, and it was resolved by the New England 
colonies to raise ten thousand in addition, with large stores 
of ammunition. The other colonies showed equal spirit. 
The whole country was fairly aroused. 

In the first impulse of enthusiasm, Ethan Allen and Forces 
Seth Warner raised a force among the Green Mountain ^^^^ ' 
boys with a view to seize Ticonderoga and Crown Point, 
which fortresses were defended at that time by only sixty 
men. The same project had been conceived by Benedict 
Arnold, of New Haven ; and he had even been commis- 
sioned colonel, with authority to raise men in Vermont. 
As Allen, with eighty men, approached Ticonderoga, he 
was joined by Arnold, who, being refused the command, 
agreed to serve as a volunteer. The fort was surprised, 

20 * (233) 



Point. 



of Con 
gress 



234 WASIlIiNGTON COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. 

^^•^- and easily taken. Warner was then sent to seize Crown 
Ch. 2. Point, which, without difficulty, fell into his hands. The 
A. D captured fortresses furnished two hundred pieces of can- 
1775. non, with a large quantity of military stores, to the army 
Fall of of the insurgents. Arnold, in the mean time, joined by 
ro^a^aM ^^^ recruits, succeeded in occupying the important pest 
Crown of Skenesborough, now Whitehall; and then, sailing 
down the lake in a schooner he had seized, surprised 
St. John's, and captured an armed vessel, with which Le 
returned to Crown Point. 
Doings Before the tidings of these successes could reach Con- 
gress, which reassembled on the tenth of May, it had 
resolved itself into a committee of the whole to take into 
consideration the state of affairs consequent upon the 
battle of Lexington. It was reported that hostilities had 
been commenced by British troops, and it was therefore 
voted that the colonies should be put in a state of defence. 
A petition to the king was also voted, together with an 
address to the people of Glreat Britain. A proclamation 
was issued for a day of solemn fasting and prayer through- 
out the colonies, as on the eve of great calamities. 
Appoint- But the most important measure which the Continental 
ment of Qongress adopted, was the appointment of a co«nmander- 
officers. in-chief. George Washington, one of the members, was 
proposed by Johnson, of 3Iaryland, and was unanimously 
elected. He consented to serve without a salary, stipu- 
lating only for the payment of his expenses. Artemas 
Ward of Massachusetts, Charles Lee of Virginia, Philip 
Schuyler of New York, and Israel Putnam of Connecti- 
cut, were appointed major-generals. Horatio Gates, of 
Virginia, was chosen adjutant-general, with the rank 
of brigadier. Both Lee and Gates were Englishmen, 
and had considerable military experience. Congress also 
gave commissions as brigadiers to Seth Pomeroy, William 



BATTLE OF BUNKER \s HILL. 235 

ITeath, and John Thomas, of Massachusetts ; David bk. v. 
Wooster and Joseph Spencer of Connecticut, Nathaniel Ch. 2. 
Greene of Rhode Island, John Sullivan of New Hamp- j^ j^ 
shire, and Richard Montgomery of New York. These 1775. 
were the general officers. The colonels and other infe- 
rior officers in the camp before Boston also received 
commissions. 

But, before these arrangements were completed, was Battle of 
foufrht the battle of Bunker Hill, 17th of June, which ?,",^^^' 
was productive of great moral results. The British army, 
commanded by General Gage, and reinforced by a large 
body of regulars under Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and 
Clinton, now numbered ten thousand men, and were 
strongly posted at Boston. The American forces which 
blockaded the town numbered sixteen, and were com- 
manded by General Ward. 

To complete the blockade of Boston, Colonel Prescott 
was ordered, with one thousand men, including a com- 
pany of artillery, to take possession of Bunker's Hill, an 
eminence one hundred and thirteen feet high, in the 
northern part of the peninsula of Charlestown, and which 
commanded the great northern road. By mistake he 
advanced to Breed's Hill, eighty-seven feet high, on the 
southern extremity of Bunker Hill, nearer to Boston. 
Before morning, his troops had thrown up a redoubt 
which commanded the harbour of Boston. To dislodge the 
Americans from this dangerous post, Gage sent Generals 
Howe and Pigot, with three thousand men. The English 
embarked in boats from the wharves in Boston, and land- 
ing at Morton's Point, at the eastern extremity of Breed's 
Hill, formed into two columns, and advanced towards the 
redoubt, supported by a fire from the ships and batteries. 
They were permitted to press on until within one hundred 
yards of the provincials, when a well-directed fire was 



238 WASHINGTON JOINS THE ARMT. 

bk. V. opened upon them, which threw them into disorder. They 
ch. 2. rallied, and again advanced. Again they were driven back 
A. D. ill confusion. G-eneral Clinton, with new troops, advanced 
1775. to the assistance of the British, and a thu'd time they 
were led up the hill. By this time the powder of the 
provincials began to fail, and they were forced to fight at 
the point of the bayonet. The redoubt was now attacked 
in three several places, by superior forces, aided by artil- 
lery, and was carried. The provincials retreated across 
the neck, and the hill remained in possession of the 
British. The battle was dearly gained, more than one 
thousand being killed and wounded in the attack, while 
the Americans lost only four hundred and fifty, among 
Death of whom, howcvcr, was Doctor Joseph Warren, chairman of 
General ^|^g Committee of Safety, who had, a few days before, re- 
ceived the commission of major-general, but who served 
as a simple volunteer. His death was regarded as a 
great public calamity, and was deeply and universally 
lamented. Generous, brave, zealous, and influential, — ■ 
he was the John Hampden of the times. 
Wash- In about two weeks from the battle, which tested the 
L^ Cam- ability of the provincials to meet British veterans. Wash- 
bridge, ington joined the army, and fixed his head-quarters at 
Cambridge. Ward, with the right wing, was stationed at 
Roxbury; and Lee, with the left, at Prospect Hill, two 
miles north-west of Breed's Hill. The camp was soon 
joined by some companies of riflemen from Maryland, 
Virginia, and Pennsylvania; and, with all their forces, 
the British were prevented from advancing into the 
country. 

The situation of Washington was embarrassing and dif- 
ficult. On him was laid the task of organizing an army 
of raw and undisciplined recruits, distracted by sectional 
jealousies, and unprovided with adequate means; and, 



GREAT MILITARY PREPARATIONS. 237 

with these forces, was obliged to keep in check an army bk. v. 
accustomed to war, not greatly inferior in numbers, per- Cb. 2. 
fectly equipped, and provided with money and stores. a. d. 

Congress, which had not the constitutional power it at 1775. 
present has, nevertheless did all it could to assist Wash- Appro- 
ington, and provide the means of successful resistance. It }J"^*^^^ 
voted bills of credit, established a post-office system, issued gross. 
military commissions, corresponded and co-operated with 
colonial legislatures, prepared articles of war, and set forth 
a declaration of the justice and necessity of their course in 
taking up arms. 

The English Parliament proceeded to measures equally -^ppJ".^ 
decided. It confiscated all American ships and cargoes, byPar- 
and decreed the colonies in a state of revolt. It voted ^^^^ ' 
liberal supplies to the king's ministers, who had nego- 
tiated for the aid of German mercenaries, and otherwise 
increased the military forces. It looked upon all concili- 
ation as at an end, and thought only of coercion and vigo- 
rous offensive operations. General Gage was recalled to 
give an account of the battle of Bunker Hill, and was 
succeeded in command by General Sir William Howe. 

The provincial governors, appointed by royal authority, 
abdicated their governments soon after the breaking out 
of hostilities, and generally retired to British shipping for 
protection. They quickly perceived that they could do 
nothing, without overwhelming forces to sustain them, 
when all the colonies were in arms, and united toccether. 

The first movements of the American Congi-ess and Contem- 
army were more vigorous than could have been expected fnfaltn 
from their deficiency in money and military stores. No- ^^ ^^^* 
thing less than the conquest of Canada was contemplated. 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point had fallen into cheir hands, 
and why should not Montreal and Quebec? Nothing 
seemed impossible to men animated by the first impulses 



238 INVASION OF CANADA. 

Bg.v. of bravery and patriotism, before experience had taught 

Ch. 2. them the difficulties even of defence. 
A. D. This task was entrusted to Generals Schuyler and 

1775. Montgomery; and, on the tenth of September, they ap- 

Generai peared before St. John's, but with a force inadequate to 

Schuy- j-etjuce it. Schuyler returned to Ticonderoga for rein- 

ler in- . 

vades forccments, was there taken ill, and was prevented from 
rejoining the army, the command of which devolved on 
Montgomery. He successively captured Fort Chambly, 
St. John's, and Montreal, and advanced, in the latter part 
of November, with a small force of a few hundred men, 
to attack Quebec; expecting, however, the co-operation 
of Colonel Arnold. 
Arnold's That enterprising, but unprincipled officer, with 1100 
enter- uaeu, had penetrated through the forests, swamps, and 
mountains of Maine, ascending the Kennebec, and de- 
scending the Chaudiere, and, in six weeks after his de- 
parture from Boston, had reached the banks of the St. 
Lawrence. Could he have crossed the river at once, he 
might have captured Quebec ; for this important fortress 
was defended by only two hundred regular troops. But 
he found no boats, and, before he could construct them, 
Governor Carleton made his appearance from Montreal, 
organized the people of Quebec into military companies, 
landed the sailors, and increased the force of the citadel 
to 1200 men. 
Unsuo- Arnold, however, on the 13th of November, crossed 
cessfui ^jjg river, and ascended, as Wolfe did before him, the 

attack ' ' ' 

oo Que- Plains of Abraham. His little army had dwindled to six 
*^°' hundred men, and, as he had no means of attack, he 
retreated to a post twenty miles up the river, where he 
awaited the approach of Montgomery. On the 1st of 
December, the two commanders formed a junction of theif 
troops, and advanced to attack the strongest fortress in 



DIFFICULTIES OF WASHINGTON. 239 

the country. Nothing could be more rash or more bold. bk. v. 
Their united forces numbered only a thousand men ; while Ch. 2. 
the enemy, in superior strength, were entrenched behind ^^ j)^ 
fortifications which could have defied ten times their num- 1775. 
ber, especially as their artillery was too light to be of any 
service. Still, an assault was resolved upon, after three 
weeks had been wasted in an ineffectual siege. On the 
31st of December, in a snow-storm, the attack was made, 
and failed ; Montgomery being killed, and Arnold wound- Death of 
ed. The men fought with desperate courage, but courage gomery. 
thrown away. Four hundi'ed of them were lost, and the 
remainder retired three miles from the city, and kept up, 
during the winter, the semblance of a blockade behind 
ramparts of frozen snow. 

Meanwhile Washington remained in the camp before Embar- 
Boston, attempting to organize an army which was enlisted ^g^tsof 
but for a few months. The first burst of enthusiasm was 'Wash- 
over. A short acquaintance with military life had damped ^° *^°* 
the ardour of the troops, and they longed to return to their 
homes. The commander-in-chief was surrounded with 
difficulties. The camp was in danger of desertion. The 
time of the Connecticut and Rhode Island regiments ex- 
pired in December, and none of the troops were engaged 
beyond the 1st of April. 

In this emergency. Congress called earnestly upon the Cbn- 
several provinces for a renewal of enlistments, and corre- J^Jg 
sponded with the friends of liberty in foreign lands. Par- ^uppUea. 
liament was no less active, and voted twenty-five thousand 
additional troops for the American serdce. It was re- 
solved, by both parties, to prosecute the war with vigour 
when the spring should return. 

The campaign of 1776 opened (March 4th) with the 1776. 
occupation of Dorchester Heights, now South Boston, by 
the American troops. This eminence commanded both 



240 EVACUATION OF BOSTON. 

bk. V. the harbour and the town of Boston. Unless the Ameri- 
Ch. 2. cans were dislodged, the town must be abandoned by the 
j^ J) British. Accordingly, General Howe resolved upon an 
1776. attack; but, a storm having made the harbour impassable, 
it was delayed until the American works were so strength- 
ened that no resource was left but an evacuation of the 
town. 
Retreat By a tacit agreement, the British troops, numbering 
British scvcu thousand men, besides two thousand sailors and 
J'^"^ marines, were unmolested in their retreat: and on the 

Boston. ' ' , , 

27th of March, Washington entered the town in triumph. 
His army, in and around Boston, numbered fourteen thou- 
sand men, exclusive of militia, and was now enriched by 
considerable quantities of military stores which the fugitive 
Wash- enemy had left. Washington, after a short sojourn, hast- 
motes ened for New York, both to defend that place and corre- 
towards gpoud morc easily with Congress, which now issued four 
' additional millions of continental paper, appointed a Stand- 
ing Committee to superintend the treasury, established 
two new military departments. Southern and Middle, and 
commissioned six new brigadiers — Armstrong, Thomas, 
Lewis, Moore, Stirling, and Howe. 

But these measures were insuf&cient, when compared 
with that great event which was to separate for ever the 
colonies from the mother-country. For some time it was 
publicly discussed, whether or not American Independ- 
ence should be oflScially declared. The idea encountered, 
in the several colonies, strenuous opposition, but every 
Dehate day was gaining converts. On the 7th of June, the sub- 
in Oon- j^^^ ^^g introduced into Congress by Richard Henry Lee, 
specting ^Jiq movcd, iu obcdiencc to instructions from A^irginia, 
dence. " that the United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and 
independent States, and that their political connection with 
Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved/' Congress 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 241 

resolved itself into a committee of the whole to debate the Bk. v. 
resolution. It was opposed by some of the greatest friends Ch. 2. 
of liberty and some of the ablest men in Congress, as pre- ^ j) 
mature, — among whom were John Dickenson, Robert R. 1776. 
Livingston, and Edward Rutledge. John Adams was the 
most conspicuous advocate of the measure, which passed 
by a majority of only one State — seven against six. On 
the ever-memorable 4th of July, the Declaration of Inde- juiy 4. 
pendencc. drawn up by Thomas Jeflferson, was publicly tj^^^f " 
proclaimed from the door of the State-House in Philadel- indepen- 

. deuce. 

phia, amid the ringing of bells, the firing of cannon, and 
shouts of universal rejoicing. It was everywhere received 
by the Americans with unbounded enthusiasm, while it 
took the English nation by surprise, and firmly united it 
against the new republic. Both countries were now ar- 
rayed against each other in fierce hostility. The only 
question to solve was — liberty or slavery. 

A few days before this great event occurred, (June june28. 
28th,) General Howe had landed on Staten Island, with j^^l^lf^ 
the army which had retreated from Boston ; and, a few staten 
days after, he was joined by his brother. Admiral Lord 
Howe, with large reinforcements from England. These 
forces, united with those of Clinton, from the South, 
numbered 24,000, and all of them were veterans. A 
large addition to these was also expected, and nothing 
short of the complete subjugation of the country was con- 
fidently anticipated. It was the design of the British to 
occupy New York and the Hudson river, and thus open 
a communication with Canada, while, at the same time, 
they separated the Eastern from the Middle States. 

The American general could oppose to this great army strength 
only 27,000 undisciplined troops, most of whom were ^^J^eJ.^. 
militia, and part of whom were entirely inefiectual, par- 
tially provided with arms and ammunition, and distracted 
21 



can 
arinv 



242 THE ENGLISH LAND ON LONG ISLAND. 

._?^lZl ^y sectional jealousies; still he resolved to prevent, if 
cii-2. possible, the occupation of New York by a superior 
A. D. force. 

1776. Howe, before he made preparations to occupy New 
York, sent a letter to Washington, offering terms of ac- 
commodation ; but as it was directed merely to George 
Washington, Esq., without recognising his military rank, 
General he vcry properly declined to receive it. Without losing 
lands on ^^^ Hiore time, the British general landed his troops at 
Long Gravesend, proposing to approach New York by way of 
Long Island. The American army, in anticipation of this 
movement, was stationed at Brooklyn. Between the 
American camp and the British army was a range of 
hills, the passes of which were imperfectly guarded; 
through these the British troops advanced in the night 
Aug. 26. of the 26th of August, and nearly surrounded the Ame- 
Buttieof ricans the next morning. A battle ensued; but, attacked 
Brook- -j^ ^i^g j.g^j, ^^^ front by superior forces, the Americans 
Heights, were compelled to retreat, with a loss of nearly two thousand 
killed, wounded, and taken prisoners.. Among those who 
were captured were Generals Sullivan and Stirling. The 
British lost about four hundred men. 
Aug. 30. After such a check, Washington deemed it prudent to 
onvash- retreat from Long Island, which, of course, fell into the 
in^'ton. hands of the British (August 30th). He left a consider- 
able force in New York, but encamped with his main 
body on Harlem Heights, ready to retire, if necessary, 
across the Harlem river. 
Howe After the battle of Long Island, Howe proposed to 

nogoti- confer with some members of Congress, in their private 
capacity as gentlemen, in order to bring about a reconcili- 
ation. Congress refused to send any of their number as 
individuals, but, as they were desirous of peace, offered to 
send a committee ; and Franklin, Adams, and Eutledge 



OCCUPATION OP NEW YORK. 243 

were appointed to confer with the British commander, p^-^- 
They met on Staten Island -, but nothing resulted from Ch. 2. 
the interview, neither party being willing to abandon tho a. d. 
ground it had taken. 1776. 

This negotiation having failed, military operations were Scpt. i.). 
resumed. The English ascended, in their ships, both the opeJ.^"^^ 
Hudson and East rivers, and landed on the east side of *ions r«. 
the island, about three miles above the city. Orders were 
sent to Putnam, who commanded in the city, to evacuate 
immediately ; and it was only by moving mpidly to the 
western shore, that he and his troops escaped capture. 
The next day (September 16th), the Americans repulsed 
the enemy in a skirmish, but lost Colonel Knowlton and 
Major Fitch. 

Howe, having entered the city, and not deeming it occai^e^ 
prudent to attack the camp of Washington on Harlem ^^^^<^^ 

^ ^ ° N.York 

Heights, resolved to cut off his communication with the by tiio 
Eastern States. With this view, the main body of the ^^^^^^' 
British army, passing up the Sound, landed in the vicinity 
of Westchester, fourteen miles front New York, while 
ships of war, ascending the Hudson, cut off the supplies 
of the Americans from New Jersey. Thus in danger of Ketreat 
being shut in by overwhelming forces, the commander-in- ^^*^'*', 
chief abandoned the island altogether, with the exception ean.g. 
of three thousand men, whom he left at Fort Washington, 
on the Hudson, and retreated to White Plains, and after- 
wards to the heights of North Castle, where he strongly 
fortified his camp (October 28th). It was the policy of 
Howe to bring the Americans into an engagement, and it 
was their policy to avoid one, inasmuch as they were 
vastly inferior, both in number and discipline, to the 
British, who now numbered 35,000 men. 

Foiled in the attempt to engage the Americans in bat- 
tle, and not during to attack their fortified camp, tho 



244 RETREAT OP WASHINGTON. 

Bg-v. British general sought to subdue the forts on the Hudson 
Ch. 2. and penetrate New Jersey. Washington, perceiving this, 
A. D. crossed the Hudson, near the Highlands, with the main 
1776. body of the army, and joined Greene at Fort Lee, leaving 
three thousand men, under Colonel Morgan, for the de- 
fence of Fort Washington. This force was inadequate, 
Fall of and, accordingly, being attacked by the enemy, the fort 
Wash- surrendered, and all the men, with a great quantity of 
ington, artillery, fell into the hands of the British. They now 
occupied the whole of the island, and commanded the 
And of Hudson. They next directed their attention to Fort Lee, 
Lee. which post Washington was obliged to evacuate, leaving 
Retreat behind him his military stores. He retreated across the 
ofWash- Hackensack, before superior numbers, and thence across 
the Passaic, with forces constantly diminishing, so that 
by the 1st of November he had scarcely three thousand 
men. Newark, New Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton 
were successively abandoned by the retreating army. On 
the 8th of December he crossed the Delaware at Trenton, 
the only barrier between Philadelphia and the British 
army. So rapid was his retreat that the van of the pur- 
suing army appeared as the rearguard of the retreating 
one had crossed the river. 

This was one of the most gloomy crises in the war. 

Success The English were everywhere victorious and triumphant. 

En^^fsii ^^^J stretched along the banks of the Delaware from 

New Brunswick to the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, 

ready to cross the river so soon as it should be frozen. 

Their forces were large, and well provided with arms, 

ammunition, clothing, and provisions. They were elated 

with success, and expected soon to reduce the whole 

strte^f country. The American troops scarcely numbered onc- 

Ameri- quarter of the enemy, were scantily provisioned, had ina- 

fairs. dequate military stores, and were much dispirited. Lee 



MILITARY OPERATIONS IN NEW JERSEY. 245 

was a captive, being surprised at a house three miles from bk. v.' 
his main body, where he carelessly quartered. Newport Ch. 2. 
was abandoned. A British fleet blockaded Rhode Island, a. d. 
Georgia and Carolina were visited by an Indian war. 1776. 
Congress had retired to Baltimore. 

Under these discouragements, and in view of the despe- Wash- 
rate state of affairs, Congress wisely conferred on Wash- a'J.^ed 
ington almost dictatorial powers. He was authorized to ^i*^ 
displace all officers under the rank of brigadier ; to fill up powers. 
all vacancies; to take for the use of the army whatever he 
needed, allowing the owner a reasonable price ', to arrest 
all disaffected persons, and to raise forces wherever he 
could find them. These powers were to continue for six 
months. 

By great exertions he recruited his army to seven The 
thousand men ; and, while the British were relaxinor their ^^^^^' 

' > o can 

watchfulness, during the approaching Christmas festivities, army re- 
he resolved to "clip their wings.'' On the evening of 
Christmas, with twenty-five hundred of his best troops, he 
crossed the Delaware, nine miles above Trenton, and ad- 
vanced, in a snow-storm, to attack the enemy. They 
were completely taken by surprise, and fled, but not until 
one thousand Hessians were taken, with six pieces of artil- 
lery. Washington lost only nine men. After performing 
this brilliant exploit, he recrosscd the river. 

Determined to follow up his success, Washington, on pg,.. 28. 
the 28th of December, again crossed the Delaware, and Matties 

' ° 'of Tren- 

occupied Trenton, now deserted by the enemy, where he ton and 
was joined by some Pennsylvania militia. But Howe, 
alarmed at the surprise of Trenton, sent Cornwallis, with 
a strong force, to attack the Americans. Washington 
again was in a dangerous position. To cross the river in 
the face of a vastly superior enemy was too hazardous to 
be attempted. To risk a battle was equally rash. He 
21=^ 



Prince- 
ton. 



246 AMERICAN ENCAMPMENT AT MORRISTOWN. 

bk. V. resolved neither to retreat nor fight the enemy at Tren- 
cii. 2. ton, but, by a bold and unexpected march, to gain the 
A. D. i"ear of the enemy at Princeton ; and then, if successful, 
1776. to fall upon his stores at Brunswick. Accordingly, by a 
Jan. 3. circuitous road, he reached Princeton at midnight (Janu- 
1777. ary 3d), where a regiment occupied the college, which 
soon surrendered. A marching regiment, in the rear of 
the same, fled towards Brunswick ; and two others, in ad- 
vance, marching to join Cornwallis, were attacked, but 
succeeded in joining him, after a desperate contest. 

The Americans were about to hasten to Brunswick and 

seize the English magazines, when Cornwallis, having 

penetrated the plan of Washington, was already close 

Army upou his rear. The order to advance on Brunswick was 

into^^ countermanded, and Washington, desirous to occupy a 

winter- defensible position, marched to Morristown, and en- 

quar- ^ ' 

ters. trenched himself. Cornwallis, not venturing to cross the 

Delaware with an army in his rear, and not anxious to 

continue a winter campaign, retired to New Brunswick. 

Results Thus closed the first regular campaign of the war, — 

of the ^i^g main army of the Americans being entrenched at 

cam- ^ ° 

paign. Morristown, while Putnam held Princeton on the one 
side, and Heath, the Highlands on the other. The re- 
covery of New Jersey by the fragments of a defeated army 
secured to Washington great military fame, in this coun- 
try and in Europe, while it inspired the American people 
with fresh hopes of being able to secure their independ- 
ence. The recruiting service revived, and a new army 
was organized. Stirling, St. Clair, Mifflin, Stephen, and 
Lincoln were made major-generals; Poor, Glover, Patter- 
son, Varnum, Learned, Huntingdon, George Clinton, 
Wayne, De Haas, Cadwalader, Hand, Eeed, Waden, 
Muhlenberg, Woodford, Scott, Nash, and Conway, re- 
ceived commissions as brigadiers. The prisoners taken 



RESULTS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 247 

on either side were partially exchanged. Several ships bk. v. 
of war were built. Privateers were commissioned ; and ch. 2. 
so successful were their operations, that nearly three hun- ^ ^^ 
dred and fifty vessels, worth, with their cargoes, five mil- I777. 
lions of dollars, were captured, and many of them sold to 
the French. A national flag was adopted — the thirteen 
stars and stripes, — and negotiations entered into with 
France for assistance. In September, Franklin, Deane, Commis- 

sioDGr3 

and Lee had sailed, as commissioners to the French court, sent to 
and received from the government a small sum of money, ^^*'^"'' 
which was expended in the purchase of arms and military 
stores. But Congress was perplexed by financial embar- Finan- 
rassments. American bills of credit began to depreciate, ^^^'^^^ 
and loans were not easily obtained. The attempts to ments. 
sustain depreciated paper-money were abortive, and intro- 
duced confusion and calamity. Under all circumstances, 
a successful stand was made ; but difficulties and embar- 
rassments perplexed both Congress and the commander- 
in-chief, who had now earned the name of the American 
Fabius. 






m 




Surrender of Burgoyne. 



248 



CHAPTER III. 

THE CAMPAIGN OF 1777, UNTIL THE SURRENDER OP 
BURGOYNE. 

The war into which the obstinacy and stupidity of the bk. v. 



ministers had plunged the English nation was, neverthe- ch. 3. 
less, popular, and whatever money and supplies were ^ jy 
asked for were readily granted by Parliament. It was 1777. 
resolved to invade the provinces from Ci.nada, and a large 
force was placed at General Burgoyne's disposal for that 
purpose. It was also resolved to prosecute the war with 
vigour in other sections. Few, in England, doubted 
that America would be reduced before another season 
should close. 

The campaign opened early. In March, 1777, a de- March, 
tachment from New York, then occupied by the British, ^fl^^^^ 
was sent up the Hudson to destroy the stores collected at 
Peekskill, the lowest point on this river held by the Ame- 
ricans. In consequence of this attack, which was success- 
ful, new eflbrts were made to strengthen the defences of 
the Highlands, and Putnam was sent to take the com- 
mand. A month later, the town of Danbury, in Connec- 
ticut, was attacked by General Tyson, at the head of 
2000 men, and the provisions there collected for the use 
of the American army were destroyed. Tyson then re- 
treated, but was molested by two corps of militia, one 
under Wooster, and the other under Arnold ; but he suc- 

(249) 



cain- 
paiga. 



250 GREAT MILITARY OPERATIONS. 

bk. V. ceeded in reaching head-quarters, with the loss of 170 
Ch. 3. men, - killed and wounded. "Wooster was unfortunately 
^ D killed, and Arnold for his bravery was made a major- 
1777. general. 

Expedi- The Americans retaliated by a similar marauding ex- 
^^^^^ pedition under Colonel Meigs, sent against Sag Harbour, 
bour. by which twelve English vessels were destroyed, a large 
quantity of provisions seized, and ninety men taken pri- 
May24. soucrs. Soott after. General Prescott, being quartered 
of Gen"^^ carelessly in the vicinity of Newport, was captured by a 
Prescott. small party, as Lee had been the preceding year. He 

was afterwards exchanged for Lee. 
Howe But, early in June, military operations were conducted 

into N. on a great scale. Howe, being reinforced, left New York, 
Jersey, -^ith 30,000 men, and advanced into New Jersey, with 
the view of penetrating to Philadelphia, or of bringing 
Washington out of his entrenchments, and forcing him to 
a general engagement. He had then removed to Middle- 
brook, with 8000 men. 

But the American Fabius was too wary to fight under 

iiisde- such disadvantages; and Howe, disappointed, embarked 

Phiia^'^ 18,000 men at Staten Island, with the view of approach- 

deiphia. ing Philadelphia by water, leaving the remainder of the 

army under General Clinton, to co-operate with General 

Burgoyne on the Hudson. 

Washington, uncertain as to the destination of Howe, 

proceeded to Philadelphia, to confer with Congress; and, 

Wash- there, for the first time, he met the Marquis De la Fayette, 

meets^ who had just arrived, and who had offered himself as a 

Lafay- volunteer in the American service. This generous noblc- 

ette. . . 

man, influenced by zeal for the cause of liberty, had pur- 
chased a ship at his own expense, and loaded it with 
military stores for the use of the Americans. Sihis 
Deane, in Paris, had promised him the commission of 



and re- 
treat. 



PHILADELPHIA OCCUPIED BY THE BRITISH. 251 

major-general, and Congress, admiring his disinterested- bk. v. 
ness, readily gave it to him, without, however, any mill- Ch.3. 
tary command. Among other distinguished foreigners, ^ jy 
who came with him, was the Baron De Kalb, a German 1777. 
veteran, who also was commissioned a major-general. 

In the mean time, General Howe, learning that the ^ 

Delaware was obstructed, entered the Chesapeake Bay, 
and landed at the head of Elk river, in Maryland, half- Aug. 27. 
way between the Susquehanna and the Delaware, and 
sixty miles from Philadelphia. Washington concentrated Sept. 3. 
his forces, which amounted to 15,00U, at Wilmington, to 
await the British army, which was much superior. Soon Ameri- 
after (September 11th), he retired behind the Brandy- feated, 
wine, where he was attacked and defeated, and obliged to 
retreat, during the night, to Chester, and the next day to 
Philadelphia. Here he remained but a few days, then 
recrossed the Schuylkill, and proceded to attack the British 
near Goshen, twenty miles from Philadelphia; but a vio- 
lent rain compelled both armies to defer the engagement. 

On the 22d, Howe crossed the Schuylkill, below the Howe 
American army, and nothing but a battle could now save Jhiia-*^^ 
Philadelphia. Washington, with inferior forces, which deiphia. 
were deficient in arms and ammunition, and wearied by 
recent marches, did not dare to risk a battle, and suffered 
the enemy to occupy the city. Its fall had been foreseen. 
Congress had adjourned to Lancaster, and the public stores 
and private property of value had been removed. 

While Howe occupied Philadelphia, his main army pff^.J*. 
was encamped at German town, and Washington resolved of the 
to attack it. The attack was unsuccessful. What pro- c^'J&t 
miscd to be a victory proved a defeat, with the loss to the <^*^™ 
Americans of over 1000 men, who were, after this re- 
pulse, obliged to retire twenty miles further into the 
country. 



an- 
to-vvii. 



252 INVASION FROM CANADA. 

bk. V. The next effort of the AmericanSj in this quarter, was 
Ch. 3. to prevent the English fleet from ascending the Delaware 
^ j)^ to Philadelphia, and there forming a junction with the 
1777. army. Accordingly, Forts Mifflin and Mercer, which 
Defences Commanded the Delaware, were strongly fortified. Both 
on the these defences were attacked by the enemy on the 22d 
ware of Octobcr, at first unsuccessfully ; but, after a series of 
doned. attacks, they were abandoned, and the navigation left 
open to the English. 

But, while the enemy triumphed in Pennsylvania and 
New Jersey, a series of brilliant and unexpected successes 
awaited the Americans in New York, and made the sub- 
jugation of the country next to impossible. 
British Jt -^as the plan of the British to invade the country 
invar fro^ii Canada — capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point — 
"'^'^- tnke possession of the posts on the Hudson, and form a 
junction with the troops at New York; and thus entirely 
separate the Eastern from the Middle States. Accord- 
ingly, General Burgoyne, with a brilliant army of more 
than 8000 men, on the 16th of June, left St. Johns, 
established magazines at Crown Point, and proceeded to 
Retreat invest Ticonderoga. General St. Clair, who commanded 
Clair. ^^^^ fortress, had only 3000 men — an inadequate force, — 
and hence abandoned the fort, which, of course, fell into 
the hands of the enemy. He had sent his baggage and 
stores to Skeensborough, but these were unfortunately 
overtaken by the enemy, and destroyed. Nor was this 
his only loss. The rear of his retreating army, amount- 
ing to 1200 men, against his orders, had stopped at 
Hubberton, six miles west of Castleton, and were at- 
tacked (July 7th) by General Frazer, and so completely 
were they destroyed or dispersed, that only ninety men, 
under Warner, joined his small army, two days after. 
He at first retired to Rutland ; but, on the 13th of July 



BURGOYNE ON THE HUDSON. 253 

he made a junction with the main army, under Schuyler, bk. v. 
at Fort Edward, on the Hudson. ch. 3. 

The loss of Ticonderoga and all its artillery, the dis- ^ jy 
aster at Skeensborough, and the defeat at Hubberton, 1777. 
together with the dispersion of the American troops, Digag. 
almost overwhelmed Congress. The English seemed to *f^°^ 

o o ^ the 

be triumphant everywhere. New York was in possession Ameri- 
of the enemy. Philadelphia had also fallen, and was garri- '^'^^^' 
soned by Howe's army. There was great dijB&culty in raising 
men and money. Want of confidence in the American ge- 
nerals was whispered, and nothing seemed to prevent the 
full realization of all the British schemes. Burgoyne was 
so confident of success, that he issued a proclamation for 
the re-establishment of the royal authority. Through the 
unbroken wilderness between Lake George and the Hudson 
he made his way — all impediments were overcome, and Arrival 
at last, on the 29th of July, the banks of the Hudson of Bur- 
were reached, and he had only to penetrate to Albany, on the 
and be safe and victorious. Hudson. 

But when he arrived at Fort Edward, which the Ame- Fort Ed- 
ricans had abandoned to him, he found that he was defi- ^"** 

' aoan- 

cient in provisions, nor could he advance advantageously donod. 
until they were obtained. He therefore despatched a 
strong detachment, of 800 men, under Colonel Baum, to 
seize a quantity of stores which the Americans had col- 
lected at Bennington. It so happened that a party of 
New Hampshire militia, under the command of Colonel 
Stark, had lately arrived at Bennington. Informed of 
Baum's approach. Stark sent ofi" expresses for the militia 
and the forces in the neighborhood. He was also joined 
by fugitives from Hubberton. Baum, not wishing to en- 
counter these forces, entrenched himself, six miles from 
Bennington, and sent back to Burgoyne for reinforce- Aug. I6. 
ments. But before these could arrive. Stark had attacked victorj-. 
22 



254 SUCCESSES OF THE AMERICANS. 

bk. V. Lira (August 16th). "There they are !" said the gallant 



Ch. 3. colonel — "We beat to-day, or Sally Stark's a widow 1" 

^ J) Scarcely were the entrenchraents carried and the enemy 

1777. dispersed, before the reinforcements arrived. The battle 

was renewed, and gained by the Americans, who lost only 

14 killed and 42 wounded. Of the enemy 200 were 

killed, and 500 taken prisoners, together with 1000 

stand of arms. 

Success This disaster was a severe check to Burgoyne, and 

Ameri- ^^^ ^^^^ followcd by the defeat of another expedition, 

cans. which he had sent to reduce Fort Schuyler, near . the 

head of the Mohawk. These successes operated like 

magic, in reviving the spirits of the Americans, and 

depressing those of their enemy. Volunteers, as well as 

regulars, daily arrived at the camp of Schuyler, amid the 

islands at the mouth of the Mohawk while the Indians 

Schuy- and Canadians began to desert Burgoyne. Much, how- 

persied ^^^^? ^^ *^^ chagrin of Schuyler, he was superseded by 

LyGates. Gates, just as affairs began to turn in his favour and as 

the way for victory was prepared. 

Gates had now a large force of 6000 strong, besides 
militia, to resist the English general, who was delayed a 
month for lack of provisions. Having, however, collected 
of Bur- enough to last for thirty days, Burgoyne, about the mid- 
towards ^^^ ^^ September, crossed the Hudson to Saratoga, and 
Albany, glowly advanced on his march to Albany. Gates, mean- 
while, had left his camp amid the islands of the Mohawk, 
and occupied Behmer's Heights, near Stillwater. On the 
19th of September, Burgoyne having arrived within two 
miles of the American camp, he was attacked, but no- 
thing decisive resulted. His advance, however, was im- 
peded, and he was compelled to entrench himself, hoping 
for a relief from Clinton. But the expected aid not ar- 
riving, and suffering from want of provisions, it was 



CHANCES OP THE CONFLICT. 255 

necessary for him to risk another battle or retreat. He ^g- ^^- 
preferred the former; and, on the 7th of October, another Ch. 3. 
action occurred, in which prodigies of valour were per- a. d. 
formed on both sides. Burgoyne lost the day, and was 1777. 
forced to return to Saratoga. Here, however, his situa- 
tion was not improved. He had only three days' provi- 
sions, and was surrounded by superior forces, flushed with 
recent success. He could neither stay where he was, nor 
retreat, nor advance. Under these circumstances, he was gurren- 
compelled to surrender. 5642 prisoners, with all their ^^ °^ 
arms and military stores, fell into the hands of the Ame- goyne. 
ricans. Ticonderoga and all the forts on the northern 
frontier were abandoned when the news of this great mis- 
fortune reached the English. Clinton, who had advanced 
with 3000 men to relieve Burgoyne, retreated to New 
York. 

The surrender of Burgoyne indicated the fate of the Pros- 
war, since it showed that the Americans fought under l^l J^^^ 
greater advantages than their enemy, and that the coun- 
try itself presented difficulties which were insurmountable 
to an invader. It mattered but little that cities were 
taken, when the great body of the people resided in the 
country, — were scattered over mountains, valleys, and 
forests — were willing to make sacrifices, and were com- 
manded by generals whom no danger could appal, and 
no disasters could discourage. Washington, Gates, Greene, 
l*utnam, Lee, and others, knew that the issue of the con- 
flict was no longer doubtful. None were blind but the 
English ministry. They alone still dreamed of achieving 
an impossibility, — for it is impossible to subdue a great 
nation, determined to be free. 

Lord North, however, on hearing of the total surrender rroposi. 
of the great Northern army, which was to complete the J,7idi"j^. 
subjection of America, was forced to propose conciliatory ti""- 



*256 CABAL AGAINST WASHINGTON. 

^^- ^^- measures. He sent commissioners to America, who of- 
ch. 3. fered all that the colonies had ever asked previous to the 
A. D. Declaration of Independence. But conciliation, without 
1777. the recognition of entire independence, was now too late. 
Trance The Surrender of Burgoyne had also a great eifect on 
joins m ^jjg French nation — ever dazzled by outward success, and 

the war. -^ ' 

easily led where glory opens the way. The government 
may not have sympathized with the American cause, but 
it hated England more than liberty, and accordingly ac- 
knowledged the independence of America, and prepared 
to aid it with its forces, which action of course involved 
the nation in a war with England. Lord North had now 
to contend with the most powerful nation on the continent 
of Europe, as well as rebellious colonies. 
Condi- Notwithstanding the probability of ultimate success, the 
tiiTime- -A^mericans were greatly embarrassed for lack of money, — 
can nor was the army well supplied with clothing and stores, 
'^^"^* to meet the approaching winter. Out of 11,000 men in 
Washington's camp at Valley Forge, near Philadelphia, 
nearly 3000 were barefooted, and suffering under severe 
privations. The officers were compelled to trench upon 
their private property, and made sad complaints to Con- 
Cabai gress. IMoreover, a cabal was formed against Washington 
Wash! himself, whose late disasters contrasted unfavourably with 
ington. Gates's brilliant successes. Many influential members of 
Congress doubted Washington's fitness for the supreme 
command ; while a correspondence, extremely derogatory 
to his military character, was carried on between Gates, 
Mifflin, and Conway, Human nature showed its dege- 
neracy even among patriots and heroes, 
nis vin- But Congress, the army, and his country in general, 
sustained the commander-in-chief, by whose wisdom and 
prudence the nation had been saved. Others, as brave 
as he, may have led triumphant battalions at Behmer's 



CHARACTER OF WASHINGTON. 257 

Heights. But none combined those moral and intel- ^^- ^'- 

lectual qualities, which secured, to so eminent a degree, ch. 3. 

the affections and confidence of his countrymen. The a. d. 

perfection of character, so far as it was ever seen in 1777. 
revolutionary times, was exhibited by Washinojton alone. 




Battle of Monmouth. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE PROGRESS Or THE WAR, FROM THE SURRENDER 
OF BURGOYNE TO THE TREASON OF ARNOLD. 

Washington remained during the winter of 1777-'8 bk. v. 
encamped at Valley Forge, with 11,000 men, watching Ch. 4. 
the movements of the British at Philadelphia, and re- a. d. 
organizing the army, in which he was greatly assisted by 1778. 
Baron Steuben, a Prussian officer, and an excellent dis- 
ciplinarian. 

Congress still continued to be greatly embarrassed by 
the depreciation of paper-money, and the inability to se- 
cure loans. It was obliged to issue new bills of credit, to New is' 
a great amount, as the only way to pay the half-discon- ^^ig^^f 
tented troops. <=^'®^*- 

In January, the treaties of friendship and alliance with Treaties 
France were signed, by which both parties agreed to con- ^f^^^ 
tinue the war until the independence of America was signed, 
recognized by G-reat Britain. 

No military movements of importance occurred until 
the middle of May. In order to gain intelligence of the 
movements of the enemy, and also to restrict foraging 
parties from Philadelphia, Washington sent Lafayette, 
with a division, to occupy Barren Hill, ten miles in ad- 
vance of the camp. Clinton, however, sent a force of 
5000, under Grant, to cut him off; and the young general Retreat 
was forced to retreat, which retreat he effected in a mas- ettc. 
terly manner, and thereby gained great reputation. 

(259) 



260 BATTLE OF MONMOUTEI. 

bk. V. As the Delaware was liable to be blockaded by a French 



Ch. 4. fleet, Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, re- 
A, D. ceived orders from his government to evacuate Philadel- 
1778. phia, no longer to be held in safety. On the 18th of 
June 18. June, he sent his military stores and baggage to New 
Phiia- York by water, and crossed the Delaware with his army, 
evacu- 12,000 strong, with a view of marching through New 

ated. -r 

J ersey. 
TheBrit- Washington immediately set out in pursuit, and soon 
New^ came near the English forces, intending to bring on a 
Jersey, general engagement. Lafayette was ordered, with 2000 
men, to press upon Clinton's left wing, and draw him 
from the heights. As Lee claimed the leadership, on ac- 
count of his superior rank, he was sent, with two addi- 
tional brigades, to take command, and attack the enemy, 
then encamped at Monmouth ; Washington, meanwhile, 
having promised to support him with the main army. 
Retreat As Washington advanced on the morning of the 28th of 
of Lee. j^jjjg^ i^g j^g^ j^gg retreating, and only an indecisive action 
followed. Washington, greatly irritated, gave Lee a se- 
vere reproof, who, instead of bearing it quietly, wrote two 
disrespectful letters to his superior, which resulted in his 
arrest, trial, and suspension for twelve months. On the 
expiration of his sentence, he addressed an insolent letter 
His die- to Congress, and was dismissed wholly from the service. 
fromthe "^^^s ended his military career, without having realized 
eervice. the great expectations formed of him at the commence- 
ment of the war. He died in retirement, in 1782. 

After the battle of Monmouth, the British procjeeded, 

without further molestation, to Sandy Hook, whence they 

Arrival were transported to New York. Scarcely had they sailed, 

French whcn the Count D'Estaing appeared, with a French fleet 

fleet. of twelve ships of the line and two frigates, with 4000 

French troops. A joint attack on New York was con- 



REDUCTION OP NETVPORT. 261 

templated, and Washington crossed the Hudson, and took bk. v# 
up his quarters at White Plains; but, as the pilots de- Ch. 4. 
clined to take the heavier ships over the bar, the attack a. d. 
was relinquished. 1778. 

It was then contemplated to reduce Newport, which, Beduo- 
for eighteen months, had been hdd by the British. Ac- Jj^'^ °^ 
cordingly, upon a call from Sullivan, who commanded in port, 
that quarter, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecti- 
cut, furnished 5000 additional troops, to co-operate with 
the French, who had already entered the harbour of New- 
port, and had caused the British to destroy six of their 
frigates. Soon after, the iVmerican army, 10,000 strong, 
landed on the island, expecting to be joined by the 4000 
French troops. The greatest enthusiasm prevailed. Every- 
thing promised success. 

But the French really cared more to gain glory by de- Disaster 
feating the English in a naval battle than to assist the French 
Americans, in spite of their great professions and appa- ^'l 
rent co-operation. So soon as the fleet of Lord Howe fleets. 
appeared off the harbour of Newport, D'Estaing left his 
allies, to give battle to the English, notwithstanding the 
remonstrances of Washington and Lafayette, and without 
so much as disembarking his troops. This was both pro- 
voking and unfortunate. Before the naval action could 
commence, a storm arose and damaged both fleets, and 
compelled them to retire, the one to New York and the 
other to Boston. The English fleet, however, suffered less, 
and soon reappeared at Newport, for the defence of the 
town, which was soon after reinforced by 4000 troops from 
New York, under Clinton himself. Sullivan was placed suUivan 
in a critical situation, and had iust time to retire. Thus °^''-*''^ 

" to retire. 

ended all the hopes which had been formed of the reduc- 
tion of Rhode Island. Sullivan could not control his 
feelings of disappointment, and uttered loud complaints, 



262 WYOMING MASSACRE. 

bk. V. which were re-echoed throughout New England. It re- 
Ch. 4. quired all the policy of Washington to soothe the morti- 
A. D. fied D'Estaingj and Congress, to heal the growing breach, 
1778. passed resolutions approving his conduct, which was per- 
haps necessary. 
MoTe- D'Estaing was not refitted until November, and then 

^•'t^e sailed for the West Indies, now the principal seat of war 
French between France and England. Thither were also sent 
English. 5000 British troops from New York ; and, three weeks 
later, 3500 men to attack Georgia. Enough, however, 
remained in New York to defend it from an attack by 
the Americans. 
Frontier While the American forces were concentrated on the 
Uons. coast, the western frontiers were molested by the Indians. 
Among the settlements most exposed to attack was Wyo- 
ming, on the Susquehanna, in the neighborhood of which 
were unfortunately many hostile to the American cause, 
and who were then called Tories. These Tories, uniting 
with the Indians, surprised the garrison, and massacred 
many of the inhabitants of the town, and laid waste the 
surrounding country. The savage invaders then retired, 
hearing of the approach of continental troops. The west- 
ern sections of Virginia would equally have suffered, had 
it not been for the vigilance, activity, and bravery of 
Colonel George Roger Clarke and a body of militia under 
his command. 
Sum- Nothing more of importance marked the campaign, 

SrJam- which gave satisfaction to neither of the contending par- 
paign- ties. The English were the more successful in the few 
actions which occurred. The Americans had recovered 
Philadelphia, and came near expelling the English from 
Rhode Island. But these advantages were again coun- 
terbalanced by the successes of the enemy in Georgia. 
Nor was the campaign of 1779 more encouraging or 



MILITARY OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTH. 263 

decisive. Congress was crippled for want of money, bk. v. 



which was, with extreme difficulty, obtained, and then Ch. 4. 
only to a limited extent. In consequence of the rapidly a. d. 
increasing depreciation of paper-money, and the impossi- 1779. 
bility of securing loans, no offensive measures, on a large 
scale, could be adopted. The only resource which Con- 
gress had was to issue new bills of credit, whicli imme- 
diately depreciated to such a degree that twenty dollars 
were worth only one in specie. The whole American Ameri- 
force consisted, in the spring of 1779, of but 17,000 forces, 
men ; 3000 of whom, under Gates, were posted in New 
England; 7000 at JMiddlebrook, the head-quarters of 
Washington during the winter; and 6000 amid the High- 
lands and on the east of the Hudson, under Putnam and 
M'Dougall. 

General Robert Howe commanded, with 600 regulars Georgia 
and as many more militia, near Savannah, an inadequate ^^^^^^ 
force to resist the 3500 men sent from New York to ope- of the 
rate against Georgia. He entrenched himself as well as 
he could, two miles from Savannah, but was there at- 
tacked by Campbell, with great loss ; and Savannah and 
all Georgia fell into the possession of the British. 

Military operations were now chiefly confined to the Provost 
South. General Provost, who commanded in Florida, |°*^® 

^ ' , ' South. 

was ordered to unite his forces with those of Campbell, 
and assume the command. He was also joined by a con- 
siderable number of Tories, and was thus prepared to 
undertake a devastating war, especially as his forces were 
greatly superior to any sent out against him. 

At the request of the southern members of Congress, jj^^^ 
General Lincoln was sent to supersede Howe, and take superso- 
the chief command of the Southern army, which chiefly Liucoin. 
consisted of militia. These were no match for the Brit- 
ish regulars, and a succession of disasters was the result. 



2G4 SURPRISE OF STONY POINT. 

bk. V. No decisive battles were fought, but the country was 
Ch. 4. ravaged with fire and sword. Property, to a considerable 
A, D, amount, was destroyed, and the inhabitants kept in per- 
1779. petual fear. 

Virginia While Provost was plundering Georgia and South Ca- 
b^Th^^ rolina, having, however, failed in taking Charleston (May 
British 11th), General Matthews was despatched from New York, 
with 2500 men, to overrun Virginia. Portsmouth and 
Norfolk fell into the hands of the enemy, who destroyed 
130 merchant vessels and a considerable quantity of to- 
bacco. This marauding expedition, intended not so much 
for conquest as for plunder, after destroying property to 
the amount of two millions, returned to New York. 
Expedi- Tyson, with 2500 men, soon after, was sent on a simi- 
tioninto j^j. expedition into Connecticut, and succeeded in plunder- 

Connec- '■ ' ^ 

ticut. ing New Haven, and burning Fairfield and Norwalk. He 
then prepared to attack New London, but was recalled in 
consequence of the surprise of Stony Point, on the Hud- 
son, by General Wayne. 
Defences At this placc, and also at Verplanck Point, which corn- 
Hudson, nianded the great Eastern road to the Middle States, and 
where the Hudson was passed by a ferry, Washington 
was raising defences. These were abandoned on the ap- 
proach of General Clinton, with 6000 men, who stationed 
in them a considerable garrison, much to the annoyance 
of the Americans, who were employed in fortifying the 
Highlands. 
July 11. This post, therefore, Washington was anxious to regain, 

Wayne ■%- ^ • . i i i • 

takes Wayne was accordmgly sent agamst it, and succeeded m 
Point surprising it on the 11th of July, and taking 450 prison- 
ers, with the loss, however, of 100 men. Soon after this 
brilliant exploit. Major Lee surprised a British garrison 
at Paulus Hook, now Jersey City, killed 30 and took 150 
prisoners. As Stony Point could not be defended with- 



EXPEDITION AGAINST THE INDIANS. 266 

out the risk of a general engagement, "VVasliington again Bk.T. 
abandoned it to the enemy. Ch. 4. 

These successes on the Hudson were followed by a a. d. 
considerable disaster in Maine. A British force of 1600 1779. 
men from Nova Scotia had established themselves on the 
Penobscot The State of Massachusetts sent out an ex- 
pedition of 1500 men, in nineteen armed vessels, to dis- 
lodge them. This force, commanded by General Lowell, Lowell's 
was found unequal to the task, and before he could be tion de- 
rcinforced, his ships were attacked by a superior force, ^^^^*^^ 
under Sir George Collier, and mostly destroyed. The 
soldiers and seamen escaped to the shore, but endured 
great hardships before they succeeded in making their 
way back. This expedition was attended with great ex- 
pense, as well as disappointment and mortification. 

The Indians, especially the Six Nations, continuing suiuvan 
their depredations on the frontiers, General Sullivan was Jo^^cdby 

\ ' Clinton. 

sent against them with a strong force. He proceeded 
up the Susquehanna, and was joined at Tioga Point by 
General James Clinton, with 1600 men, who, with his 
own, composed an array of 5000. At Elmira, he en- Aug. 2. 
countered the enemy, composed of Indians and Tories, the^in 
under Brandt, the Butlers, and Johnson, strongly en- ^^'^°« 
trenched on a rising ground. Having routed this force, Tories, 
he explored the valley of the Genesee, ravaged the couur 
try, and compelled the Indians, for want of food, to emi- 
grate. 

It was the intention of Sullivan to attack Niagara, after Attacit 
dispersing the Indians. But want of provisions, and in- ^'^ ^^** 
sufficiency of means, prevented this great object of the vented, 
expedition. In disgust, he threw up his commission, and 
entered Congress as a delegate from New Hampshire. 

While the Americans fought the Indians on the fron- 
tiers, the French and English fleets in the West Indies 
23 



of the 
plan to 
recover 
Savan- 



2G6 NAVAL VICTORY OF PAUL JONES. 

^^- ^'- encountered each other in some indecisive engagements. 
Ch. 4. Returning from the West Indies, Count D'Estaing ap- 
A. D. proached the coast of Georgia with twenty-two ships of 
1779. the line. A frigate was despatched to Chaiieston with 
Failure the ncws, and a plan concocted with Lincoln, who com- 
manded the Southern army, for the recovery of Savannah. 
D'Estaing would not wait for the effect of a regular siege, 
nah!"' fearing injury, at that season of the year, to his fleet; so 
Qpt. 9. ^^ assault was made, by the French and Americans, which 
failed, with a loss of 1000 men. On this disaster, the 
French troops re-embarked, and again sailed for the West 
Indies, while Lincoln returned to Charleston. 
Move- Clinton, meanwhile, fearing that New York might be 

ments \ -' o o 

of the attacked, withdrew his troops from Newport and the posts 
on the Hudson, and strengthened the fortifications of the 
city. Moreover, resolving to make the South the princi- 
Dec. 26. pal theatre of the war, he embarked for Savannah, with 
7000 men, so soon as he heard of D'Estaing's departure 
for the West Indies. 
Close Thus closed the campaign of 1779, without either side 

cam-^ obtaining any important advantages, or fighting any de- 
paign. cisive battle. There were some brilliant exploits per- 
formed, on a small scale, not merely on the land, but on 
NayaJ the water. Among these was a naval action, on the coast 
Jones, of Scotland, between a flotilla of French and American 
vessels, commanded by Commodore Paul Jones, and a 
large British frigate and one smaller ship, convoying a 
fleet of merchantmen. Jones commanded the Bon Homme 
Richard, a French vessel of forty-two guns, and engaged 
July 23. ^j^g Serapis, of equal or superior force. When his ship 
was in a sinking state, the intrepid Jones (a Scotchman 
by birth) lashed her to the English frigate, and carried 
her by boarding, but not until 300 of his men, out of 
375, were either killed or wounded. 



SURRENDER OF CHARLESTON. 267 

The year 1780 opened with great embuiTassments to bk. v. 
the Americans. The final issue of the contest was not ch. 4. 
doubtful, but financial difficulties prevented vigorous mea- ^ ^ 
sures. At no previous period did Congress find it so diffi- 1780. 
cult to raise money. Their resources seemed now ex- j-i^an- 
hausted. No one could advance an adequate loan. The '-i'^i ^^i^ 

ties aud 

Continental bills had depreciated so much that one hun- tustres-s 
dred dollars were worth only one in specie. The com- ^^^^^._ 
missioners had neither money nor credit, and starvation cans, 
stared the soldiers in the face. Washington — such was 
the distress — was obliged to levy contributions on the 
surrounding country, — the last stretch of absolute power 
— the last resource of a desperate army. The contest 
was apparently no nearer a termination than after the sur- 
render of Burgoyne. The French alliance had held out 
great expectations, and produced nothing but disappoint- 
ment. The expeditions against Newport and Savannah 
had both failed for want of proper co-operation. The S"p©- 
British forces were still vastly superior in numbers, and of the 
were well provided with the necessary supplies. England ^"^^'^ 
seemed determined, this year, to make one more desperate 
attempt to coerce the colonies. Accordingly, Parliament 
granted ministers all they asked — 35,000 additional 
troops, and one hundred millions of dollars. 

During this year (1780), military operations were 
nearly suspended at the North, but pushed with great 
vigour at the South, which was doomed to fearful suf- 
ferings. 

The first enterprise of the British was to lay siege to Chari«ft- 
Charleston. On the 14th of Apnl, the city was com- ^^"t!^ 
plctely invested. On the 6th of May, Fort Moultrie, 
which defended the approach by Ashley river, was taken. 
On the l'2th, when all things were ready for an assault, Surrca- 
wbich must have proved successful, the gan-isou sun-en- the city. 



268 BATTLE OF CAMDEN. 



V. 



dered; and General Lincoln and a large body of troops 
Ch. 4. became prisoners of war. Thus seven general officers, 
A. D. *^^ regiments, three battalions, four hundred pieces of 
1780. artillery, and four frigates, fell into the hands of the 
enemy, — the greatest disaster which the Americans had 
thus far met with, but for which no blame was attached 
to Lincoln, since he was deprived of the co-operation of 
the militia, which he had expected, and was opposed by a 
superior force. This misfortune proved how little reli- 
ance could be placed by southern cities on the aid of mi- 
litia from the country in times of imminent danger. 
Royal Clinton, having re-established the royal authority in 

ty re- South Carolina, returned, in June, to New York, leaving 
biiSied Cornwallis, with 4000 men, to extend and complete his 
conquests. There now remained of the army of the South 
but a single continental regiment, and this was 400 miles 
from Charleston. 
Gates In view of the distress of the Southern States, Gates 

the was despatched, with a considerable force, for their relief. 
South, jjjg army, joined by different bodies of Virginia and South 
Carolina militia, numbered 5000 men. Cornwallis has- 
tened from Charleston to meet him; and, at Camden, 
formed a junction with Lord Rawdon, afterwards the cele- 
brated Marquis of Hastings. The united British forces 
advanced to surprise Gates, while Gates had left Clermont 
for the purpose of surprising Cornwallis. The two armies 
met near Saunder's creek, a branch of the Wateree, about 
Aug. 13. 115 miles north-west of Charleston. A bloody battle 
felt at" ^^^ liere fought, and gained by the British. The Ame- 
Camdoa. ncans, indeed, were completely routed, and lost over 1000 
men, with all their baggage and artillery. General Gates 
retired to North Carolina, with a few of his scattered 
troops, leaving the South completely at the mercy of the 
British; who acted the part of conquerors, and inflicted 



DISASTERS OF THE CAMPAIGN. 26^ 

signal and useless cruelties on the people. They hanged bk. v. 
many of the militia as traitors, and confiscated the pro- Ch. 4. 
perty of those who were friendly to the cause of libert3\ ^^ jy 
Nor was the disaster, which sullied the laurels of the 1780. 
victor of Saratoga, the only misfortune of the Americans, j^.^ ^^^ 
The brave Colonel Sumter, who had headed an insur- sal of the 
rection north of Camden, and had made successful attacks J^^J!^ 
on some British posts, retreated when he heard of Gates's ^'^™- 

ter. 

defeat, but was followed and overtaken by Colonel Tarl- 
ton, with a body of horse ; his troops were attacked and 
dispersed, and he himself escaped with difficulty. He 
soon after collected a new force ; but all that the Ame- 
ricans could now do, was to carry on a guerilla warfare. Gates 
The South was at the mercy of the British. Gates lost g"Jod' 
all his fame, and was superseded by Greene. 

The only success which balanced these evils at the Defeat 
South, was the defeat of Colonel Ferguson, whom Corn- °^g^*'J' 
wallis had detached to the frontiers of North Carolina, 
for the purpose of encouraging the loyalists to take up 
arms. Exasperated by his excesses, a body of militia, 
chiefly riflemen, attacked his party, at King's Mountain, 
a post near the boundary between North and South Ca- 
rolina. Ferguson fell, and 300 men were killed or 
wounded, while 800 were taken prisoners, together with 
1500 stand of arms. 

The campaign of 1780 was the most calamitous and ResuUs 
unsatisfactory during the whole war. The English were cam-"^ 
generally victorious, while the poverty of the Americans p^^^"- 
prevented the enlistment of troops. The three Southern 
States were incapable of helping themselves, and those at 
the North were penniless. To add to these calamities, 
General Arnold proved a traitor, and came near deliver- 
ing West Point into the hands of the enemy. His ex- 
travagance had involved him in debt, and his insolence 
23* 



of Ar- 
nold. 



270 Arnold's treason. 

bk. v. and pride had created numerous enemies. Mortified be- 
ck 4. cause his claims against Congress were cut down, and 
^ jy complaining of ingratitude because he was not more amply 
1780. rewarded for his services, he entered into treasonable cor- 
Treason rcspondencc with Sir Henry Clinton, through Major An- 
dre, adjutant-general of the British army. In order to 
facilitate his designs, he solicited and obtained command 
Aug. 3. of the fortress of West Point — for who dreamed that the 
hero at Behmer's Heights and Quebec could be guilty of 
treason, and consign his name, glorious in spite of his 
faults, to an infamous immortality ? His treason was de- 
^ . no tected, just as his schemes were matured ; but the traitor 

Sept. 22. ' "^ ' ^ 

Capture had time to fly. Major Andre, who had communicated 
Andri°^ in pcrson with Arnold, was seized on suspicion, as he was 
making his way alone back to New York, not being able 
to return the way he came, which was by water. In his 
stockings were found plans of the fortress and other trea- 
sonable papers, in Arnold's oavti handwriting. Colonel 
Jamieson, the commanding officer at the lines, to whom 
Andre was brought by the three men who had seized him, 
unsuspicious of Arnold's treachery, sent back to him the 
Sept 24. letter found on Andre. He received it while breakfasting 
with Washington's aids-de-camp, the chief himself being 
Arnold goon cxpcctcd from Hartford. He immediately rose from 
the table, called his wife up-stairs, bade a hasty adieu, 
mounted a horse, rode to the river, embarked in his barge, 
and safely reached the Vulture, the ship which had trans- 
ported Andre from New York. He was safe ; but poor 
Andr6 Andre was executed as a spy. Neither his family, nor 
cuted as ^'^^^) ^^^* accomplishments, nor virtues, nor the interees- 
a spy. siou of the British commander-in-chief, could save him 
from the fate which the st^rn rules of war demanded. 
His execution was denounced in England as a murder, 



ARNOLD COMiMANDS A BRITISH rocCE. 271 

and tended much to aggravate the feelings which were bk.v. 
now generally embittered towards the Americans. ch,4. 

Arnold received for his treachery $50,000, and a com- a. d. 
mission as brigadier -general in the British army — a 1780. 
small recompense for the ignominy which settled over his Amoidv 
name. Henceforth his fine military talents were em- ^^eward. 
ployed against his countrymen. He was sent to the 
Chesapeake Bay, and, with 1600 men, commenced the 
devajBtation of Virginia. 




Signing of the Treaty with England. 



272 



CHAPTER V. 

THE TWO LAST CAMPAIGNS OP THE WAR. 

The campaign of 1781 did not open with encouraging bk. v. 
prospects to the Americans. Their means of resistance ch. 5. 
were becoming more feeble ; their resources were nearly 
exhausted; their patience nearly wearied out. The Penn- 1781. 
sylvania troops, amounting to 1300, abandoned the camp g^^^^^^ 
at Morristown. Both officers and men were getting wca- affairs, 
ried of a contest in which they were acquiring neither 
fortune nor fame. On all sides, the British were in the 
ascendant. They still occupied New York, and had re- 
duced South Carolina to subjection. Their troops ravaged 
the South without resistance. 

In this last crisis. Congress and the States made extra- laxa- 
ordinary exertions. Taxation was resorted to, and, in the ^^^^ ^^ 

t> rr • - 1 • -r^ Sorted 

exigency 01 affairs, was acquiesced m. But the most effi- to. 
cient aid was derived through Robert Morris, of Philadel- Moms's 
phia, by whose financial genius the treasury was reple- ^^^j 
nished, and the troops kept from disbanding. 

But the campaign of 1781 was, nevertheless, virtually Arnold 
the last. It was commenced by the ravages and depre- virgfnTa. 
dations of Arnold in Virginia. Anxious to signalize him- 
self by a brilliant exploit, he ascended James river, with jan. 4. 
900 men, and entered the town of Richmond without re- 
sistance, burned many of the buildings, and seized valu- 

(273) 



274 DESIGN TO CAPTURE ARNOLD. 

bk. V. able stores — those which he could not carry away, he 



Ch. 5. destroyed. 

j^ J) Baron Steuben was in Yir^nia at the time, organizing 
1781. recruits for GJ-reene's army; with a few hundred of these 
Design ^^^ ^ bo^y of militia, who rallied around him — assisted, 
to cap- also, by Nelson, who had collected another corps — he 
noid. advanced to watch the traitor, hoping eventually to cap- 
ture him. Washington, also, was very desirous to secure 
his person, and accordingly sent Lafayette, with 1200 
men, to assist Steuben ; and, a French fleet, at the same 
time, co-operating, the plan seemed not unfeasible. 
March. But the English general, apprized of this project, sent 
Admiral Arbuthnot to attack the French fleet ; and Ar- 
nold, soon after, being joined by 2000 men, under Philips, 
who took the command of the united forces, the Ame- 
et»;e. ricans wcrc thwarted, and Arnold escaped; the British, 
Cuatri- meanwhile, contenting themselves by levying contribu- 
ieT?eT^ tions on all places through which they passed, and, among 

others, on Mount Vernon, the seat of Washington. 
Hostiii- In another section, further south, hostilities were car- 
ther ried on early in the season. Greene commanded the 
south. Americans, and Cornwallis the English. The former did 
not attempt to engage the latter in a pitched battle, being 
greatly inferior in strength ; but resolved to harass the 
Morgjm enemy he despaired to conquer. Accordingly, he sent 
harass Coloncl Morgau to the western part of South Carolina, to 
check the devastations of the English and the loyalists. 
Cornwallis, then advancing against North Carolina, was 
unwilling to leave Morgan in his rear, and therefore 
despatched Colonel Tarlton, with a superior force, to drive 
him away. Morgan retreated before his enemy, until he 
had selected a strong position, at a place called Cowpens, 
near Broad river, where he entrenched himself, and pre- 
pared to face his pui-suers. Tarlton came up to him oa 



the 
enemy 



DESTRUCTIVE WARFARE IN THE SOUTH. ^iO 

the ITtli of January, and, confident of victory, made an bk-^- 
impetuous charge. But his men were weary from rapid Ch. 5. 
pursuit, while the Americans were fresh. At the first a. d. 
assault, the Americans fell back, but suddenly facing 1781. 
round, charged, and broke the British line, which was Defeat 
followed by the complete defeat of Tarleton. Closely ton.^'^^' 
pursued, he lost 600 men, with all his baggage, while 
Morgan lost but 80. Tarleton then joined Cornwallis, 
who marched, the next day, in pursuit of Morgan, after 
destroying all superfluous stores. But Morgan escaped, 
and joined Greene (January 31st). Greene, however, was Greene 
still inferior to the enemy advancing to attax?k him, and 
hence he continued to retreat. On the 14th of February, 
he crossed the Roanoke, and entered Virginia. Soon 
after, he recrossed into North Carolina, and surprised a Surprise 
body of Tories, who were on the march to join the enemy, of tories. 
These he cut to pieces, as a warning to others, and then 
took a new position. Still unable to contend with Corn- 
wallis in a pitched battle, and unwilling to risk an attack, 
he changed his encampment every day, acting as his own 
quarter-master, and never telling any one what position 
he should occupy next. Like Cornwallis, he was obliged 
to live at free quarters. 

Nothing could be more destructive and harassing than (^^^^.^0- 
this warfare in the Southern States. One army was in ter of 
constant pursuit of the other, and both armies could sub- fare, 
sist only by levying contributions, as injurious to friends 
as to enemies. Both armies had to be perpetually on 
guard against surprises. Advantages were nearly equally 
balanced. 

At last, by the middle of March, Greene's army was Greene 
so far reinforced, that he, in his turn, assumed the offen- assumes 

' ' ' the of- 

sive; and Cornwallis, as his troops were better disciplined, fensive. 
did not decline an engagement. Accordingly, an action 



276 CRUELTIES OF THE WAR. 

Bg-^- took place near Guilford Court-house (March 15th), and 



Ch. 5. Greene was compelled to retreat. He was not pursued, 
A. D. on account of the severe loss the enemy had sustained, and 
1781. his want of tents to receive the wounded, and provisions 
Battle to refresh the soldiers. About 500 men were lost on each 
f'S^^' side. Though the victory nominally belonged to Corn- 
wallis, his army was so much weakened that he was com- 
pelled to fall back to Fayetteville (then Cross creek), and, 
being disappointed in not finding provisions there, still 
further towards Wilmington. 
Move- Greene then marched into South Carolina, with a view 

of the of driving away Lord Rawdon, who, with 900 men, was 
armies, posted at Camden ; and Cornwallis, finding it impossible 
to send succour in season, proceeded to Virginia, to join 
the British forces under Arnold and Philips. 
Torts Greene was sufficiently fortunate to take a few of the 

Greene, forts which the British had established, from the sea-coast 
Defeat to the Western frontier; but he was defeated (25th of 
ofiusat- ^prii^ JQ an attack on Rawdon, although the loss on both 
Rawdon. sides (250 men) was nearly equal. Greene then occu- 
pied a strong position, twelve miles distant, and Rawdon, 
reinforced, sought to engage him in another battle, which 
Greene declined. On the 10th of May, Rawdon, finding 
that some forts in his rear were attacked by Lee and 
Marion, abandoned Camden, and retreated to Monk's 
Corner. Then, reinforced, he again assumed the offen- 
sive; and Greene, in his turn, withdrew (June 18th). 
Results Though defeated twice, the Americans, in this active 
cam-^ campaign of seven months, had reaped the fniits of vic- 
paign. iQj.y^ ^ part of South Carolina was recovered, and the 
English were confined to a narrow district, between the 
Cruelty gantcc and the Lower Savannah. Both parties carried on 
war. the war with great cruelty — shooting, as deserters, tL jse 
who had ever acknowledged the protection of the triumphant 



/ 

DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTY IN VIRGINIA. 277 

army — stealing each other's slaves — burning houses, and bk. v. 
plundering private property. It was a predatory war, ch. 5. 
calculated to harass and irritate, rather than to conquer, a. d. 
But mutual exhaustion and mutual barbarities led neces- 1781. 
sarily to this savage mode, which, though not creditable 
to the commanders, was perhaps scarcely controllable by 
them. It was not by such a course that America could 
be subdued, or the English driven away. 

While these events occurred in North and South Ca- corn- 
rolina, Cornwallis overran Virginia, the defence of which ^^'''"'^ 

' D / over- 

was entrusted to Lafayette. But, with his small force nmsViiv 

of 3000 men, principally militia, he could do little more ^^^^^' 
than watch the enemy. Unable to force Lafayette to 
a battle, Cornwallis employed himself in destroying 
property. Petersburg and Richmond fell into his hands, 
and were plundered ; while Tarleton penetrated to Char- j^^^ 4. 
lottesville, and seized several members of the House of 
Delegates. 

Soon after, Cornwallis received orders to send part of 
his troops to New York, Clinton having feared an attack 
from Washington. On the 5th of July, he crossed James ^^^'^' 
river, and was then attacked by Lafayette ; but no deci- tacks 
sive results followed. At Portsmouth, whither he had ^^' 
retired, the British general recalled the troops who had 
just embarked for the aid of Clinton, and proceeded to oc- Aug. 1. 
cupy Yorktown and Gloucester — two peninsulas, project- "'^"ccu- 
ing into York river. Thither he removed with his whole York- 
army, amounting to 8000 men, attended by several large *°^^' 
ships of war. This post was deemed desirable, being very 
easily defended, very central, and favourable for ulterior 
operations. From this place he sent out detachments nisdo- 
which committed great depredations. During his invasion ^^^^^' 
to the occupancy of Yorktown, he had destroyed property rroper- 
to the amount of ten millions of dollars. *^* 

24 



Corn- 

wallis< 



278 TIMELY ARRIVAL OP FRENCH AID. 

bk. V. Soon after the arrival of Cornwallis in Virginia, "VVasli- 

Ch. 5. ington received intelligence that the Count de Grasse, the 

A. D. new French admiral in the West Indies, would soon ar- 

1781. rive in Chesapeake Bay. At first, he contemplated an 

Arrival attack on New York, but Rochambeau, the commander of 

of the ^Ijq French forces stationed at New York, was opposed 

i rench ^ . 

admiral, to it, as too great an undertaking for their united forces. 
Wash- The commander-in-chief then resolved to take advantage 
contem- ^^ *^^ promiscd aid of Be Grasse in Virginia, and strike 
plates a blow at Cornwallis. Accordingly, advices were sent to 
tack on the French at Newport, where they had remained idle for 
eleven months, to join Washington in the Highlands, — 
also, to Lafayette, to take up a strong position in Virginia, 
so as to cut off the retreat of Cornwallis to North Caro- 
lina. Every effort, of course, was made to conceal from 
Clinton the intended measures, and keep up the idea that 
the attack on New York was still contemplated. 

As the American troops passed through Philadelphia 
theAme- in the middle of August, uncertain as to their destination, 
trwps. ^^^y evinced considerable dissatisfaction. But Washing- 
ton was enabled to pacify them by a partial discharge of 
Arrival ^jjgjj. arrears, in consequence of the timely arrival of Lau- 
ney, &c. reus from France, with half a million of dollars, besides 
Frl^ce ^^^^ ^^^ ammunition. Rochambeau had also advanced 
^20,000 from the French military chest. Had it not 
been for this supply, the expedition might have failed ; 
for American credit was then at the lowest point of 
depression, and the old continental bills were worth next 
to nothing. One dollar in specie would purchase $1000 
in bills — so extreme was the depreciation — so low the 
credit of the nation. 
Afirance As Washington, now furnished with the means of ope- 
ington. rating with energy, advanced towards Virginia, leaving 
fourteen regiments, under Heath, to defend the High- 



Discon 
tent of 



CORNWALLIS INVESTED AT YORKTOWN. 279 

lands, Greene, with the Southern forces, kept the British Bk. v. 
in check in South Carolina. A battle was fought, on ch. 5. 
the 8th of September, at Eutaw Springs, fifty miles from a. d. 
Charleston, on the Santee, and the victory was claimed 1781. 
by both parties. The Americans, however, were the Battle of 
chief gainers, since the English were now obliged to re- g^j.^^^^ 
turn to Charleston and the neighbouring islands. The 
forces of Greene, however, were too much exhausted to 
continue active operations, and therefore he retired to the 
hills of the Santee. 

Meanwhile, the French fleet made its promised appear- The 
ance on the American coast, and was joined by the French g™ 
ships from Newport; so that the combined fleets num- 
bered twenty-four ships of the line — a considerable force 
in those times. The French and American army, also, 
effected a junction, at Williamsburg, with Lafayette, and 
immediately advanced to invest Cornwallis. The invest- ^^^ 
ing army amounted to 16,000 men, 7000 of whom were invest- 
French. The British force, chiefly posted at Yorktown, ®^ 
numbered 8000. Cornwallis was hemmed in on all sides 
by superior forces. York and James rivers were blockaded 
by French ships, which De Grasse had despatched from 
Chesapeake Bay ; so that the British could not escape by 
sea. 

An attack on the camp of Cornwallis, which was Attack 
strongly defended, was made on the 18th of October — camp.^ 
his redoubts were taken, his guns dismounted, and his 
ramparts rapidly crumbled down before the fire of the 
besiegers, who were posted so as to prevent his retreat to 
North Carolina. A sally was attempted, and failed. 
Nothing then remained but to cross the river to Glouces- nis po- 
ter Point, and force a passage through the troops there 
stationed, and push on to New York, pursued by a 
victorious and overwhelming enemy, and through a hos- 



sitioa. 



280 SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 

' bk. y. tile country. But that desperate scheme was abandoned, 

Ch. 5. in consequence of a stormy which drove the boats down 

A, J), the river. 

1781. Under these circumstances, Cornwallis was obliged to 
surren- Surrender, and 7000 British troops were made prisoners 
der of of ^j^j. ^October 17th). The shipping was allotted to the 
M-aiiis. French. Lincoln, who had given up his sword, eighteen 

months before, to Cornwallis at Charleston, was appointed 
to receive the surrender of the British army. 
Its ef- This great disaster to the British not only settled the 
*^^'^' issue in the Southern States, but virtually closed the war. 
It dijBFused, of course, universal joy throughout the States, 
and produced a corresponding depression among the Eng- 
lish people. So soon as the news arrived, Clinton was 
superseded by Carleton. 
Bisposi- After the fall of Cornwallis, "Wayne, with 2000 men, 
theAme- ^^^ ^^^* *^ South Carolina, for the assistance of Greene, 
rican The French army, under Rochambeau, encamped, for the 
winter, at Williamsburg. The main body of the conti- 
nental army returned to their old position near the High- 
lands. Washington spent much time in Philadelphia, 
urging speedy preparations tor the next campaign. La- 
fayette returned to France. Wilmington was evacuated, 
and North Carolina regained. Charleston alone, in South 
Carolina, remained in the hands of the British. The war 
languished — for all could now see that peace would soon 
return. 

1782. Military operations during the campaign of 1782 
did not exhibit any brilliant action, although the forces 
of both parties still kept the field. The year was most 
marked by negotiations for peace, and the strategy of 
diplomatists. The war was chiefly confined to the South- 
ern States, and but to small sections of these. The Brit- 
ish were chiefly confined to New York, Charleston, and 



PRELIMINARY ARTICLES OF PEACE. 281 

Savannah, which posts they held, and from which they bk. v. 
occasionally issued on marauding expeditions, without the Ch. 5. 
least expectation of conquering the country. A. D. 

Lord North still manifested a disposition to prolong the 1782. 
contest, with the hope of embarrassing the Americans, 
rather than of finally subduing them; and it was too 
humiliating for George the Third to acknowledge the 
great errors he had committed. But an indignant na- Public 
tion, groaning under the weight of taxes, and still more, [^ ^ug. 
deprived of a market for their goods, expressed at length land, 
the desire for peace in a way not to be misunderstood. 
The minister, rebuked by the vote of the Commons on 
the 4th of March, by which it was declared that whoever 
should advise his majesty to any further prosecution of 
offensive war against America should be considered a 
public enemy, soon after resigned. Lord Rockingham, 
inclined for peace, succeeded him, but shortly after died, 
and Lord Shelburne became premier. 

Negotiations for peace were then opened in earnest. Earnest 
Richard Oswald, a British merchant, who had been sent ^^^^^^ 

' ' tions for 

to Paris to confer with Franklin, returned to London, peace, 
with the information that nothing less than the acknow- 
ledgment of independence, a satisfactory boundary, and a 
participation in the fisheries, would suit the Americans. 
These terms, however unpalatable, were accepted as the 
basis of a treaty. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, 
John Jay, and Henry Laurens, were appointed commis- 
sioners on the part of the United States ; and Mr. Fitz- 
herbert and Mr. Oswald, on the part of Great Britain. 
They met in Paris, and fought the battle of diplomacy; 
the result of which was the sierninff, on the 30th of No- ^^^''^^^^ 

o o' signed. 

vember, of preliminary articles of peace. 

By this great treaty American independence was un- Terms 
reservedly acknowledged, together with the right of the treaty. 
34* 



zbZ WASHINGTON RESIGNS HIS COMMISSION. 

^^•^- Americans to fish, to an unlimited extent, on the banks 
Ch. 5. of Newfoundland. Great difficulty was experienced re- 
A. D. specting boundaries; which were finally fixed nearly as 
1782. they have since remained. No restitution was made, as 
was strongly urged, to the American loyalists whose pro- 
perty had been confiscated. 

Soon after this treaty was signed, and before the news 
of it had reached America, Charleston was evacuated (De- 
cember 14th). On the 19th of April, the cessation of 
hostilities was proclaimed from the camp at Newburg, 
the head-quarters of the American army, just eight years 
after the battle of Lexington. On the 25th of Novem- 
ber, the British departed from New York, which they 
had held so long ; and a few days after. Long Island and 
Staten Island were given up, and the Americans took full 
possession. On the 4th of December, Washington made 
his farewell address to his brother-officers, and then, after 
taking them all afiectionately by the hand, departed to 
Annapolis, to resign his commission into the hands of 
Congress. On the 23d of December, in presence of a 
numerous company of spectators, he, with mingled dig- 
nity and simplicity, expressed his congratulations on the 
successful termination of the war, and thus concluded his 
remarks to Congress: '^Having now finished the work 
assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of action^ 
and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body, 
under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer up 
my commission, and take my leave of all the employments 
of public life." 
His cha- Thus spake the modern Cincinnatus, the most justly 
venerated personage connected with American history, 
or the history of latter times ^ venerated, not merely be- 
cause he was great, but because he was good — a man 
who had the rare magnanimity of resigning, with cheer- 



DISSATISFACTION OF THE ARMY. 283 

fulness, great power, at the summit of his fame, and bk. v. 
whose character shines brighter and more glorious with ch. 5. 
the progress of ages, defying the most searching criticism j^ jy 
to reveal any defects which can tarnish the uniform 1782. 
beauty of his pubKc and private life. He was equally 
great, in victory or defeat ; ever mild, conciliatory, gene- 
rous, prudent, wise, dignified, not unmindful of his high 
station, and acting, at all times, in accordance with his 
high sense of the responsibilities which that station im- 
posed. 

But, before the retirement of Washington to the tran- Dissatis- 
quil pursuits of a Virginia planter, great embarrassments ^^^^^ 
had occurred as to finances, and the officers as well as the army, 
privates of the army were with difficulty appeased. The 
commander-in-chief, happily, was exposed to no tempta- 
tion of a pecuniary kind, since he was one of the richest 
citizens in Virginia or the Union. But the officers ex- 
pected, as they had been promised, half-pay for life, as 
well as a compensation for the depreciation of what they 
had already received. The magnanimity of Washington 
was rarely copied by his brother-officers, and still less by 
private soldiers, who manifested the usual infirmity of 
human nature. Still, it was but natural, that men who 
made such sacrifices to defend their country should wish 
those sacrifices to be appreciated, as, on the whole, they 
doubtless were. In the main, the conduct of the army ^harao- 

,,.,,„, terofthe 

was worthy of all praise, both for bravery and for endur- army 
ance — the heroism of action and the heroism of sufier- ^^j.^ ^ 
ing; and we should render injustice to those who bled 
or died for the future greatness of America, if we do not 
■ honour their memory, and perpetuate their fame. Of all 
the contests of modern times, the American revolution 
was the most glorious in its principles, its actions, and 
its results. No great and brilliant victories, indeed, 



war. 



284 COST or the war. 

^g'^- crowned the arms of our couutrymen, when they fought in 
Ch. 6. pitched battles, like those of Napoleon and Wellington ; 
A. D. foi" they had not the discipline of European veterans, nor 
1782. were their commanders extraordinary for military genius. 
But, when all their circumstances are duly considered, — 
their inexperience, their poverty, and the difficulties they 
had to surmount, — their success was wonderful, and has 
been universally acknowledged and honoured, even by their 
enemies, and to such a degree, that we are compelled to 
feel that they were specially aided by a superintending 
arm. He who cannot see a Providence in that contest, 
surely, will acknowledge no connection between the des- 
tinies of nations and the will of the Sovereign of the 
universe. 
Cost But, while we acknowledge the aid of Providence, let it 

°^ *^® also be remembered that the cause of liberty was achieved 
only by desperate struggles, and by the complete exhaus- 
tion of the country. Considering its resources at the time, 
and still more the fact that men and money were not 
extorted by the unrelenting arm of despotism, but were 
voluntarily granted as a free-will offering, we are asto- 
nished at the magnitude of the sacrifices, — that so many 
were willing to enlist with such inadequate pay, and that 
they persevered in warfare when its ultimate result was 
no longer doubtful. No less than 231,791 soldiers were 
furnished to the continental ranks during the war, of 
whom more than 67,000 were supplied by Massachu- 
setts. To say nothing of the various calamities of war, 
not ordinarily mentioned by historians — such as, the 
suspension of commerce and manufactures, the destruc- 
tion of private property, and the sufferings of the camp 
and the hospital — a large national debt was created, 
since, indeed, easily paid off, but seemingly enormous at 
the time. Besides this federal debt, each individual 



MORAL RESULTS. 285 

State had a debt of its own, and all the debts together bk. v. 
amounted to seventy millions of dollars. Cb. 5. 

It is difficult to tell how much Great Britain expended a. d. 
and lost by the war. Nor does an estimate of the sums 1782. 
expended, or the debts incurred, give us an adequate idea Moral 
of the results of the contest, among either of the bellige- ^*^'''^^*^^' 
rent parties. The moral results are ever greater than the 
physical, great as these may be. Whatever loss was 
suffered, either in money, men, or fame. Great Britain 
was the heavier loser. She lost the possession of a conti- 
nent and of a nation of freemen. She had the mortifica- 
tion of losing the American colonies by negligence, ex- 
tortion, and pride, which undermined affection, and cut 
the cords of mutual interest. Nor could she regain them 
by the exercise of any skill, courage, or strength. It 
must be allowed that the British fought bravely, and 
persevered so long as a shadow of hope remained. They 
were conquered, not by superior strength or skill, but by 
the impediments which nature presented — by mistakes 
of their own which no sagacity could have prevented, and 
by the invincible will of a nation determined to be free, 
and persuaded that no expenditure of treasure and blood 
was too great for the attainment of such an invaluable 
blessing as national independence. 



BOOK VI 



CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY, AND THE EARLY 
PRESIDENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

CONDITION AND HISTORY OP THE STATES UNTIL THE 
ADOPTION OP THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

The Revolutionary war, glorious as it was in its prin- bk. \j. 
ciples, and grand in its results, still left the finances of ch. i. 
the United States embarrassed, and the government un- ^ 
settled. There were also other evils. The foreign rela- 1783. 
tions were not established upon a satisfactory basis, -gnset- 
There were difficulties with the various Indian tribes, tied 
many of whom were hostile, and more were discontented, the 
The western territories gave rise to perplexing claims. c<^^^<^i7- 
The great slavery question was undecided. There was 
no provision for a regular revenue — no mint, no uniform 
customs. There were troubles rising with various Euro- 
pean states about navigation and boundaries. Commerce 
'was disordered. The imports far exceeded the exports 
in value. Great and unequal fortunes had been made by 
speculators. A spirit of luxury had been introduced into 

(286) 



CONVENTION ON REORGANIZATION. 287 

maritime towns, unknown to former generations. The i^k"^- 
fisheries were broken up. The country was drained of Ch. i. 
specie. Measures were taken in various sections to or- a. d. 
ganize new and independent States. Riots were not un- 1783 
common, and rebellion disgraced the most respectable -,^^-. 
communities. The disbanded troops of the Continental 
army, scattered through the country, and disinclined for 
regular pursuits, fomented discontent. 

This unsettled state of the country led to the necessity ConTen- 
of a new organization. Accordingly, delegates from the jeoro^rn- 
several States met in the city of Philadelphia, toward the i^e the 

, govem- 

end of May, 1787, to revise the Articles of Confederation, ment. 
As in the Continental Congress, it was agreed that each 
State should have one vote, irrespective of the number of 
delegates it should send, and that seven States should 
constitute a quorum. The deliberations were held with 
closed doors and injunctions of secresy. 

The Convention was composed of the most illustrious ofwhom 
citizens of whom the States could boast — men eminent p^^^ 
for talents, experience, character, and public services. 
Among these was Franklin, who, thirty-three years be- 
fore, had sat in the Albany Convention, when the first 
attempt had been made at Colonial union. Next in age 
and experience were Dickinson, of Delaware, Johnson and 
Sherman, of Connecticut, Rutledge, of South Carolina, 
Livingston, of New Jersey, Morris, of Pennsylvania, 
Wythe, of Virginia, and Gerry, of Massachusetts. Added 
to these were men who had lately arisen, and who were 
destined to equal fame — Hamilton, Madison, Randolph, 
Ellsworth, King, Pickering. Over all was Washington, 
nominated president of the Convention by Morris, of 
Pennsylvania. The business of the assembly was opened Rcaoiu- 
by Governor Randolph, of Virginia, who offered fifteen ferou. 
resolutions as amendments to the existing federal system, 



288 SUBJECTS OF DEBATE. 

bk. VI. and which served as an outline for the subsequent consti- 
Ch. 1. tution. The first difficulty which arose, and this furnished 
A. D. subject of most earnest debate, was in reference to the 
1787. powers of the central government in connection with the 
Subjects sovereignty of the individual States. The delegates from 
'^^^' the large States naturally desired a representation in the 
future Congress proportioned to their population and 
strength. Those from the smaller States feared that such 
a preponderating influence would be fatal to their inde- 
pendence. The election of members of Congress by the 
people was opposed by some as too democratic. Sherman 
and Gerry, especially, thought that the less the people had 
to do directly with government the better. The delegates 
also dififered as to the time which the members of the dif- 
ferent branches of Congress should serve, and still more as 
to the ratio of representation — some maintaining that the 
property, others that the number of citizens, should be the 
basis. Here the free States were at issue with those in 
which slavery existed. Debates were also held respecting 
the manner in which the executive should be chosen — 
whether by the people directly, by the several state legis- 
latures, or by the governors of the States ; also, as to the 
powers he should exercise, the duration of his office, and 
the salary he should be allowed. The judiciary depart- 
ment called forth considerable discussion, as well as the 
legislative and executive, as to the mode of appointment, 
powers, emoluments, &c. 
Princi. It took Considerable time to discuss these questions, 
^ics.**^ besides many others of minor importance ; but the great 
debates were in reference to the ratio of representation, 
the regulation of commerce, of revenue, and of slavery. 
Those which most excited the passions of the members 
related to the subject of slavery, a topic appealing 
to the interests of the North and South respectively. 



ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 289 

Long and earnest were the discussions on all these points, bk. vi. 



and had not the delegates felt their great responsibilities, ch. i. 
and the necessity of compromise and conciliation to har- ^ jj 
monize jarring interests and prejudices, the constitution 1787. 
would never have been formed or adopted. It was im- 
possible that men from different sections of the country 
should see in the same light any question which was pro- 
posed for discussion, still less such questions as directly 
affected their peculiar interests and institutions, or were 
likely to touch the balance of power between the North and 
South. The great principles of conciliation, which were compro- 
finally adopted, were, that Congress should have unre- miseson 
stricted power to enact navigation laws — that the smaller ing sub- 
States should have an equal representation with the larger J*^^^- 
in the Senate, and that five slaves should be deemed equal 
to three freemen in the representation of the country. 
The first was a concession to the delegates of the com- 
mercial and Northern States ; the second, to those of the 
smaller States ; the third, to those who represented the 
slaveholding and Southern portions of the country. 

After a four months' session, when all the provisions Adop- 

of the Constitution had been earnestly discussed, it was *j^° "^^ 

'' ' the con- 

finally signed by a large majority of the members. Of etitu- 

all these members, there was probably not one to whom 
all its articles were satisfactory, and it was finally accepted, 
not as a perfect one, but as the best of which circum- 
stances would admit. It was clearly and generally seen 
that discord and anarchy would be the result, if some im- 
provement on the old Confederation were not adopted ; 
and it was deemed better to have an imperfect constitu- 
tion than none at all — some sort of a central and efficient 
government, rather than a number of weak ones perpetu- 
ally in conflict, and ending, finally, in the ascendency of 
the more powerful, to the prostration of general interests 
25 



290 THE CONSTITUTION. 

bk.vi. and the rights of those who were weak and defenceless. 
,Ch. 1. There is nothing in the whole history of the country 
A. D. which is more worthy of praise than the conduct of the 
1787. delegates to this great national convention. There surely 
never was any assembly collected together who settled, in 
so short a time, such great and conflicting interests. 
ProTi. Before separating, the delegates made provision for any 
am^nd- fixture amendment of the Constitution, on the proposition 
ments. ^^f two-thirds of both houses of Congress and with the 
consent of three-fourths of the States. The new system 
was to go into operation whenever nine States should con- 
federate together. Happily, all the States which were 
represented in the Convention agreed to the Constitution 
(September 17th, 1787), which was then laid before 
Congress, and by Congress transmitted to the state legis- 
latures. 

The following are the articles of that famous document, 
which it is deemed expedient to print in the body of the 
history, rather than in an appendix, on account of its 
great importance : — 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
PREAMBLE. 
Objects. We, the people of the United States, in order to fonn a more per- 
fect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquillity, provide 
for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure 
the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain 
and establish this constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE L 

SECTION I. 

Legis- 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a con- 

lative gress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house 
powers. ^^ representatives. 

SECTION II. 

House !• The house of representatives shall be composed of members 
of Rep. chosen every second year by the people of the several states; and 



THE CONSTITUTION. 291 

the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for Bk. VI. 
electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. "chT" 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained 

to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the ^.j^^j^l^'^' 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of of Kep. 
that state in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among AppoL-- 
the several states which may be included within this union, accord- tion- 
ing to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by add- ^^" 
ing to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to 
service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three- 
fifths of all other persons. The actual enuBteration shall be made 
within three years after the first meeting of the congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in 

such manner as they shall by law direct The number of represen- 
tatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each 
state shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumera- 
tion shall be made, the state of Neto Hampshire shall be entitled to 
choose three; Massachusetts eight; Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations one ; Connecticut &ye ; New York six; New Jersey four ', 
Pennsylvania eight; Delaware one; Maryland six; Virginia ten; 
North Carolina five ; South Carolina five ; and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, Vacan- 

the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill up cies,how 

, . filled. 

such vacancies. 

5. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and Speaker, 

other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. '^^^ ^^ 

^ ^ pointed. 

SECTION III. 

1. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two sena- ^*^- o^ 

tors from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years : ^^"^ ™ 
' -> o 7 •' ' for £a«:h 

and each senator shall have one vote. state. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of Classifi- 
the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into cr.tion 
three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be ^^ ^'^^" 
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at 

the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expi- 
ration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every 
second year ; and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, 
during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive there- 
of may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the 
legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. QiiAlifS- 

2. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the cations. 



292 



THE CONSTITUTION. 



Bk. VI. 

Ch. 1. 

Presid- 
ing offi- 
cer of 
Senate. 



Senate a 
court for 
the trial 
of im- 
peach- 
ments. 
Judg- 
ment in 
case of 
convic- 
tion. 



Elec- 
tions of 
Sen. and 
Rep. 

Meeting 
of con- 
gress. 



Organi- 
zation 
of con- 
gress. 



Rules of 
proceed- 
ing. 

Journal 
of con- 
gress. 



Adjourn 
ment. 



age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
state for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of 
the senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The senate shall choose their other oflficers, and also a president 
pro tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall 
exercise the office of president of the United States. 

6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the president of the United States is tried, the chief justice 
shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concur- 
rence of two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in case of impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
office of honour, trust, or profit, under the United States ; but the 
party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indict- 
ment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators 
and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legisla- 
ture thereof; but the congress may, at any time, by law, make or 
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint a diflferent day. 

SECTION Y. 

1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members ; and a majority of each shall 
constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may 
adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such 
penalties as each house may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish ' 
its members for disorderly behaviour, and, with the concurrence of 
two-thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their 
judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members 
of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of 
those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, daring the session of congress, shall, without 



THE CONSTITUTION. 293 

tlio consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to Bk. VI. 
any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. ^j^ ^ 

SECTION VI. 

1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation Compen- 
for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the trea- satioa 
sury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, ^'^^ T"" 
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during Qf n^gm. 
their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in go- bcrs. 
ing to or returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in 

either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which Plurali- 

he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority ^^ '^^°^ 

fices i)r« 
of the United States which shall have been created, or the emolu- j^jijityj 

ments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no 
person holding any office under the United States shall be a mem- 
ber of either house during his continuance in office. 

SECTION VII. 

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the bouse of re- Bills, 
presentatives ; but the senate may propose or concur with amend- how ori- 
ments, as on other bills. ginat^d. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives How 
and the senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the bUls be- 
president of the United States ,• if he approve, he shall sign it ; but !^°™® 

if irot, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which 
it shall have originated, who shall enter the objection at large on 
their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsi- 
deration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall 
be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which 
it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of 
that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases, the votes 
of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names 
of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the 
journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned 
by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall 
have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner 
as if he had signed it, unless the congress by their adjournment pre- 
vent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Orders, 
senate and house of representatives may be necessary, (except on a <^c. to be 
question of adjournment,) shall be presented to the president of the ^^ t'n?'* 
United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be ap- 
proved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by 

2.5 '^ 



jn con- 
gress. 



294 THE CONSTITUTION. 

Bk. VI. two-thirds of the senate and house of representatives, according to 
Qjj I the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

SECTION VIII. 

Powers The congress shall have power — 

vested i. Tq lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excise, to pay the 

debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of 
the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uni- 
form throughout the United States : 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States : 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among tho 
several states, and with the Indian tribes : 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws 
on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States : 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
and fix the standard of weights and measures : 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States : 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads : 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, 
for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive rdght to 
their respective writings and discoveries : 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court : To define 
and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and 
ofi'ences against the law of nations : 

10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water : 

11. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money 
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : 

12. To provide and maintain a navy : 

13. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces : 

14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
the union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions : 

15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mili- 
tia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the 
service of the United States, reser\-ing to the states respectively the 
appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia 
according to the discipline prescribed by congress : 

16. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of 
particular states, and the acceptance of congress, become the seat of 
government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over 



THE CONSTITUTION. 295 

all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the state in bk. VI. 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arse- ~ — r~ 
nals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings : — and, 

17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for car- 
rying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX. 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the Provi- i 
states now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohi- ®*ons in 
bited by the congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred Tq^^^^-. I 
and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importations, gration. 
not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- Habeas 
pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion and invasion, the public corpus, 
safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. Attaiu- 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro- Capita- 
portion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be tion tax. 
taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. Regular- 
No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or re- *'°"^ ^^ 

" " ° garding 

venue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall ves- duties, 
sels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
duties in another. 

6. No money shall bo drawn from the treasury but in consequence Moneys, 
of appropriations made bylaw; and a regular statement and account how 

of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be pub- '^^''^"• 
lished from time to time. 

7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and Titles of 
no person holding any office of profit 'or trust under them shall, nobility 
without the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolu- ^°'^^' 
ment, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
foreign state. 

SECTION X. 

1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; Powers 
grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of ^^ states 
credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment , j 
of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law im- 
pairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. ' 

2. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any j-estrio- 
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- tione. 



296 THE CONSTITUTION. 

Bk. VI. lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the neat pre- 
Q^ J duce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, 
shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States, and all such 
laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the congress. 
Ko state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty of ton- 
nage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, 
or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent 
danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

SECTION I. 

Execu- 1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United 
tivepow- States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 
in a pre- J^^rs, and, together with the vice-president, chosen for the same 
sident. term, be elected as follows : 

How 2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 

elected, thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number 
of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled 
in the congress ; but no senator, or representative, or person hold- 
ing an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be ap- 
pointed an elector. 
Proceed- 3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by 
ings of ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabit- 
and of ^"^ °^ *^® same state with themselves. And they shall make a list 
House of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; 
of Rep. -which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
of the government of the United States, directed to the president of 
the senate. The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the 
senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the 
votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest num- 
ber of votes shall be the president, if such number be a majority of 
the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than 
one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, 
then the house of representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, 
one of them for president; and if no person have a majority, then, 
from the five highest on the list, the said house shall, in like man- 
ner, choose the president. But, in choosing the president, the votes 
shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having 
one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states 
shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of 
the president, the person having the greatest number of votes of the 



THE CONSTITUTION. 297 

the electors shall be the vice-president. But if there should remain Bk. VI. 
two or more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose from ^^ ^ 
them, by ballot, the vice-president. 

4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, Time of 

and the day on which they shall give their votes : which day shall chooMiig 

' " electors, 

be the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the Qualifi- 
United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall cations 
be eligible to the oflSce of president: neither shall any person be eli- ^f the 
gible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty- ^^^^ 
five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United 
States. 

6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his Resort 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties in case 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president, and of bis 
the congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, re- ^^^ 
signation, or inability, both of the president and vice-president, de- 
claring what officer shall then act as president, and such officer shall 

act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a president shall 
be elected. 

7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a His ear 
compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during lary. 
the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the Oath re- 
following oath or affirmation : quired. 

9. "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of president of the United States, and will, to the best of 
my ability, preserve, protect, and defend, the constitution of tho 
United States." 

SECTION II. 

1. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the army and Powers 

navy of the United States, and of tho militia of the several states of the 

when called into the actual service of the United States : he may P""®"* 

dent, 
require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the 

executive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of 

their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves 

and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases 

of impeachment. 

2. lie shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of 
the senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators 
present concur : and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice 



298 THE CONSTITUTION. 

Bk. VI. and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 

Ch. 1. "ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other 

officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein 
Powers 1 • 

of the Otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But 

presi- t^6 congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior offi- 

dent. cers as they may think proper in the president alone, in the courts 

of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 

happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions 

which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION III. 

1. He shall, from time to time, give to the congress information 

of the state of the union, and recommend to their consideration such 
Hg infiiv 
convene '^^^^"'■es as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on 

eon- extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them; 

gi'ess. and, in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time 

of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think 

proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; 

be shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall 

commission all the officers of the United States. 

SECTION IV. 

Howoffi- 1. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the United 
^rsmay gtates, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and convic- 
moved ^^'^^ '^^> ^-reason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 
ARTICLE III. 

SECTION I. 

Judicial ^' ^he judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one 
power, supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may from 

^°^^ time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme 
vested. v o > j. 

and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, 
and shall at stated times receive for their services a compensation 
which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

SECTION II. 

To what 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity 
arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and 
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls ; to 
all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies 
to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies be- 
tween two or more states; between a state and citizens of another 
state; between citizens of different states; between citizens of the 
same state claiming lands under grants of different states; and 



cases it 
extends, 



THE CONSTITUTION. 299 

between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, bk. VI. 
or subjects. ~Ch~T~ 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 

consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court ,""^ 
' 1 .-/ r diction 

shall have oi-iginal jurisdiction. In all the other cases before men- of the 
tioned the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as supreme 
to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as court, 
the congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall Rules ^ 
be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the state where the said respectr 
crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within ^j.jj^ig_ 
any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the congress 

may by law have directed. 

SECTION III. 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying Treason 
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid ^^ 
and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession 

in open court. 

2. The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of How pu- 
treason; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, ^^® 

or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

SECTION I. 

1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public Validity 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the ° F^ i,^^ 
congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in Avhich such of states, 
acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

SECTION II. 

1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and Privi- 
immunities of citizens in the several states. leges of 

n A 1 ■, • . , o , , citizens. 

2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other 

crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, of fugi- 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which lives 
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdic- f'"'^™ 
tion of the crime. •'"^^'''®' 

3. No person held to service or labour in one state, under the laws Rendi- 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labour, but escaped 
shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or from 
labour may be due. eervice. 



300 THE CONSTITUTION. 

BK. VI. SECTION iir. 

■— r~Y~ 1- New states may be admitted by the congress into this union ; 
but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction 

^^^7 of any other state, nor any state be formed by the junction of two 
sta,t6s* ' *i *i V ^^ 

or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legisla- 
tures of the states concerned as well as of the congress. 
Public 2. The congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all 
domain, needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other pro- 
perty belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this constitu- 
tion shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United 
States, or of any particular state. 

SECTION IV. 

Republi- 1. The United States shall guaranty to every state in this union a 

can gov- republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 

ernment 

eruaran- ^^o^-inst invasion; and, on application of the legislature, or of the 

tied. executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against do- 
mestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 
Amend- 1. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem 
men ,s to -j. necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution \ or, on 
stitu- t^^ application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, 
tion. shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either 
case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this con- 
stitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the 
several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one 
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the congress ; 
provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year 
one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect 
the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article : 
and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
suffrage in the senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 
Validity 1. AH debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the 
^ ^T'^^ adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United 

States under this constitution as under the confederation. 
Supre- 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall 
uiacy of jje made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall 
raUvws ^® i^ade, under the authority of the United States, shall be the su- 
preme law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound 
thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the 
contrary notwithstanding. 
Oaths of 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the 
office. members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and 



THE CONSTITUTION. 



301 



Ch.l. 



judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, Bk. VI 
shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this constitution : 
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any 
office of public trust under the United States. 
ARTICLE VII. 
1. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be suf- 
ficient for the establishment of this constitution between the states 
so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the states present, 
the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one 
thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independ- 
ence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and 

Deputy from Virginia. 
Neio Hampshire. Thomas Mifflin 
John Langdon Robert Morris 

Nicholas Gilman George Clymeu 

Massachusetts. Jared Ingersoll 
Nathaniel Gorman James Wilson 
Rlfus King Governeur Morris 

Connecticut. Delaware. 



Wm. Samuel Johnson George Read 



Virginia. 
John Blair 
James Madison, Jr. 

North Carolina. 
William Blount 
Richard D. Spaight 
Hugh Williamson 

South Carolina. 



Roger Sherman 
Neto York. 
Alex. Hamilton 
New Jersey, 
William Livingston 
David Bearley 
William Paterson 
Jonathan Dayton 
Pennsylvania. 
Benjamin Franklin 



Gunning Bedford, Jr. John Rutledge 



John Dickinson 
Richard Bassett 
Jacob Broom 

Maryland. 
James M'Henry 



Charles Cotesworth 

PiNCKNEY 

Charles Pinckney 
Pierce Butler 

Georgia. 



Daniel OF St. Thomas William Eew 

Jenifer Abraham Baldwin 

Daniel Carroll 

Attest, WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 

[These amendments, proposed by the first Congress, and subsequently 
adopted by the States, are necessarily inserted here in order that the whole 
of this important instrument as it now exists may be readily referred to.] 

Art. 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of Civil and 
religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the religious 
freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peace- ^ "^ ^' 

26 



302 THE CONSTITUTION. 

Bk. VI. ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of 
' ^, , grievances. 

Art 2. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of 
''° ° a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not 
Rvms. be infringed. 

Quarter- -Art. 3. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any 
ing of house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in 
soldiers. ^ manner to be prescribed by law. 

Search Art. 4. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
'^^^' houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and sei- 
^ ■ zures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon 
probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be 
seized. 
ProTi- Art. 5. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 

Fions for infamous crime unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand 
t' tion J"^y' except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
of per- . militia, when in actual service, in time of war or public danger; nor 
Bon and shall any person be subject, for the same offence, to be twice put in 
proper- jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal 
case, to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property 
be taken for public use without just compensation. 
Trial by Art. 6. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the 
jury and i-jght to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the state 
the ao ^^^ district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
cused. district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted 
with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for ob- 
taining witnesses in his favour ; and to have the assistance of coun- 
cil for his defence. 
Suits at Art. 7. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy 
TOmmon ^^^^^ exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be pre- 
served; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined 
in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the 
common law. 
Bail, &c. Art. 8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines 

imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
Eights Art. 9. The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall 
retained not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
Powers Art. 10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
reserved constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the 
states respectively, or to the people. 



THE CONSTITUTION. 303 

Art. 11. The judicial power of the United States shall not be con- Bk. VI. 
strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prose- "chTiu" 
cuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, 
or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 

Art. 12. ^ 1. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and Amend- 
vote by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom at least "^^^jj " 
i-hall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they ggct. 4, 
shall name in their ballots the person voted for as president, and in respect- 
distinct ballots the person voted for as vice-president ; and tliey shall ^°S ^.^® 
make distinct lists af all persons voted for as president, and of all ^f pj-gsi- 
persons voted for as vice-president, and of the number of votes for dentaLid 

each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to ^ic^^V^*^ 

sidtiut/ 
the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the pre- 
sident of the senate ; the president of the senate shall, in the pre- 
sence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certifi- 
cates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the 
greatest number of votes for president shall be the president, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having 
the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted 
for as president, the house of representatives shall choose immedi- 
ately, by ballot, the president. But in choosing the president the 
votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state 
having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a mem- 
ber or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all 
the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the house of re- 
presentatives shall not choose a president whenever the right ef 
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March 
next following, then the vice-president shall act as president, as 
in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the 
president. 

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice-presi- 
dent shall be the vice-president, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a ma- 
jority, then, from the two highest numbers on the list, the senate 
shall choose the vice-president: a quorum for the purpose shall con- 
sist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority 
of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
president shall be eligible to that of vice-president of the United 
States. 



H04 ADOPTION OP THE CONSTITUTION. 

Bg- VI- Such is the Constitution, which was framed by the 



Ch. 1. wisest and most patriotic legislators that ever guided the 
A. D. destiny of our country. It still remained doubtful how 
1788. it would be received by the state legislatures and the 
Opposi- people of the United States generally. There existed 
thTcon- ^^o°g *^® people jealousies to which the enlightened 
stitu- members of the convention were personally strangere. A 
spirit, hostile to taxation and to the bearing of those bur- 
dens which are incident to all governments, unhappily pre- 
vailed. Some feared that the interests of the poor would 
be sacrificed to those of the rich, and that there were not 
sufficient guarantees to ensure personal liberty. There 
was everywhere, as was to be expected, great opposition 
to many of the articles, especially to those which relate 
to slavery, state rights, and the regulation of commerce. 
Eise of In view of these things, the framers of the Constitution, 
parS^ and Congress, and the more enlightened of the commu- 
nity, felt intense solicitude. In that critical period, Alex- 
ander Hamilton, assisted by Jay and Madison, put forth 
those famous papers which are known by the name of 
"The Federalist,'' and which are the most luminous ex- 
positions of the great principles of the Constitntion which 
have ever appeared. Those who adopted the views of 
the writers of these papers were called Federalists, and 
they embraced at that time the most intelligent and influ- 
ential classes in the nation. Those who opposed them 
were called Republicans, Democrats, and other names ; 
and from that moment arose those two great rival political 
parties which divided the nation until these later times. 
Consti- Delaware was the first State to adopt the Constitution 
IdlpTed (I^ecember 7th), and was followed (December 12th) by 
by the Pennsylvania. New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut, 
speedily followed the example. The Massachusetts con- 
vention, by a small majority, ratified the vote of the dele- 



ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT. 305 

gates (February 7th), proposing at the same time several Bk.yi. 
amendments. The conventions of Marj-lanJ, South Ca- Ch. i. 
rolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, and New York, sue- a. p. 
cessively ratified the Constitution; not, however, without 1780. 
opposition, and without proposing several amendments. 
North Carolina and Rhode Island did not join the con- 
federacy. Eleven states having adopted the constitution 
preparations were made for the organization of the new 
foilcral government. The old continental Congress set- Theoia 
tied up its accounts, and, after a continuance of thirteen ^^^^lli 
years, quietly and without note ceased to be a public body ^■^^■ 
(March 3d, 1789) It was, in the first instance, a " mere 
collection of consulting delegates;" but, as public danger 
threatened, " it boldly seized the reins of power, issued 
bills of credit, raised armies, declared independence, nego- 
tiated foreign treaties, carried the nation through an eight 
years' war, and finally extorted from the proud and pow- 
erful mother-country an acknowledgment of the sovereign 
authority so daringly assumed and so indomitably main- 
tained." 

On the first Wednesday of January, 1789, electors were Election 
chosen to vote for the President and Vice-President of the '^^^'^^'^^'i 
United States, as well as members of the new Congress, vioe-i.re- 
George Washington received the unanimous vote of th'^ 
electoral college for the highest ofiice in the gift of the 
nation; and John Adams, recently returned from Lon- 
don, after a residence abroad of nine years, in different 
courts, as minister from the United States, received the 
next largest number of votes, and was accordingly elected 
Vice-President. 

Congress was to have assembled in Federal Hall, New ^I'^pti"^ 
York, on the Site of the present Custom-house, on the 4th newcom 
of March; but the state of the roads and other difficulties ^^^^^' 
prevented a quorum until the 30th. Frederick A. Muhlen- 
26* 



306 INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON. 

bk. yi. berg, of Pennsylvania, was chosen speaker of the House 
Ch. 1. of Representatives, and John Langdon president pro tem- 
pore of the Senate. 

On the 6th of April, the electoral votes were counted, 
and special messengers sent forthwith to notify Washing- 
ton and Adams of their election. 

The messenger selected to inform Washington was 
Charles Thomson, late secretary of the Continental Con- 
gress, who, on the 16th of April, executed his commis- 
sion. 
Journey The joumey of the venerable President from Mount 
ingtoa. " Vernon to the city of New York (then the seat of the 
federal government,) resembled a triumphal procession, 
rather than the peaceful journey of a public magistrate. 
Everywhere on his route, the people flocked to the line 
of his progress, to see with their own eyes the illustrious 
man who had so signally served his country, and who was 
yet willing, at the age of fifty-seven, to forego his private 
ease and interests, with a single view to the public good. 
His in- Qjj ijjg 3Q|.1j Qf April, the oath being administered by 
tion. Robert R. Livingston, chancellor of New York, in an 
outer balcony of the Senate-chamber, and in sight of an 
immense concourse of spectators, George Washington be- 
came the first President of the United States. 

On retiring to the Senate-chamber, he addressed both 
houses in an impressive speech, emphatically reminding 
them, that no truth was more positive than that there 
exists an indissoluble union between virtue and happi- 
ness — between duty and advantage — between the gen- 
' uine maxims of an honest and magnanimous people and 

' the solid rewards of public prosperity and felicity ; and 

that the propitious smiles of Heaven could never be ex- 
pected on a nation which disregarded the eternal rules of 
order and right, which Heaven itself had ordained. He 



RENUNCIATION OF HIS SALARY. 807 

concluded by saying that, in conformity with the piiuciple ^k. vi. 

he had adopted when comraander-in-chief, he renounced Ch. i. 

all pecuniary compensation for his presidential services, ^. d, 

further than was equivalent to his additional expenditure 1789. 
in office ; which should not, at any time, be greater than 
was required for the public good. 




Inauguration of Washington. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. 

On the 30th of April, 1789, commenced the admin- bk. ti. 
istration of the most remarkable man of these modern ch. 2. ' 
times. . ^ 

A. D. 

The first subject which required his attention and that 1789, 
of Congress was to establish a revenue, and this was rj<^f,Yf^ 
chiefly raised by duties on imports. Thus, the Tariff venue: 
became the first question which called out the talents on inl- 
and the passions of the new legislators — the absorbing ^°^^^' 
subject of legislation in all popular governments — the 
most difl&cult and most important, being interlinked with 
the whole science of political economy — that unsettled 
science, concerning which there is, and probably ever 
will be, great discrepancy of opinions. 

The first questions were, whether the duties should be Debates 
imposed on foreign articles according to a specific rate or t^riff.^ 
an ad valorem scale, and also, whether protection to the 
native manufactures should be chiefly considered; in the 
course of which, all those principles which still divide 
politicians and different sections of this great country, 
were discussed and agitated even as they are in these 
times. 

On the whole, Congress agreed to protective duties, Proteo 
though not so high as those subsequently imposed. The ucy.^ 
duties on tonnage, discriminating in favour of American 

(309) 



310 REORGANIZATION OF DEPARTMENTS. 

bk. VI. commerce, were thou considered, in order to encourage 
Ch. 2. the growth of maritime power in the United States, and 
j^ J) also to favour those foreign powers who were in alliance 
1789. with the country. In all these debates, Madison, Ames, 

Sherman, Gerry, and Boudinot, were distinguished. 

Coiieo ^or ^^^ collection of duties the whole coast was divided 

tion of i^iQ seventy districts, each district to have officers in 

proportion to its importance, the most considerable of 

which were the collectors, to superintend the entrance 

and clearance of vessels and the receipt of duties; the 

naval officers, to act as checks to the collectors; and the 

surveyors, to attend to the duties of inspection. 

Reorga- Having made arrangements for the collection of a re- 

nization yg^^g Cono;ress next turned its attention to the reorp;a- 

oiexecu- 7 o o 

tive an- nization of the executive departments. The Department 
Lieuu:. of Foreign Affairs was first established, which finally set- 
tled into that of the Department of State. 

The Treasury Department was reorganized on the plan 
adopted by the Continental Congress of 1781, the head 
of which was called Secretary of the Treasury, assisted 
by subordinate officers, such as comptrollers, auditors, and 
registers, whose duty it was to manage the revenue, sup- 
port the public credit, and grant warrants for all appro- 
priations made by law. To this department the manage- 
ment and sale of public lands was also entrusted. 

The Army and Navy being small were at first managed 
by the Secretary of War. The Post-Office was not reor- 
ganized until more complete information could be collected. 
Presi- Earnest debates were then made on the question, whe- 

powtrto *^^^* these heads of departments should be removed or 
remove uot at the wiU of the President. Much to the chagrin 
of a large party, the recognition of the President's power 
of removal prevailed — for how could he execute the 
lawS; if his subordinates were independent of him ? 



VARIOUS ACTS OF CONGRESS. 311 

The federal judiciary next occupied the attention of bk. vi. 
Congress, being then established on its present system. Ch. 2. 
The Supreme Court was to hold one annual session at a. t>. 
the seat of government; and, for the trial of cases under 1789. 
its jurisdiction, two sets of tribunals were instituted, called The ju- 
District and Circuit Courts. Every State was made a ^"^^y 

•' system. 

district, and every district had a judge of its own, who 
had cognizance of all admiralty cases and lesser crimes 
against the United States. The Circuit Courts, presided 
over by one or two of the judges of the Supreme Court, 
assisted by the district judge, had jurisdiction of all suits 
of a civil nature, at common law or in equity, between 
citizens of different States, or to which the United States 
or an alien was a party. An appeal lay, as to all points 
of law, in all cases where the matter in dispute amounted 
to two thousand dollars, from the Circuit Courts to the 
Supreme Court of the United States. 

Congress then turned its attention to the amendments Amend- 
of the Constitution. All the States had many to suggest, ^^^^^^ 
but scarcely any were of vital importance. Seventeen consti- 
araendments were finally agreed to by two-thirds of the 
House of Representatives, and the Senate reduced them 
to twelve; only ten of thera received the sanction of the 
state legislatures at that time, but the remaining two 
were subsequently adopted. 

The question of salaries was then considered, and the Salaries. 
President was allowed twenty-five thousand dollars per 
annum, and a house, this being deemed adequate to his 
expenses. The salaries of other officers, executive, judi- 
cial, and legislative, were somewhat lower than are now 
given, and even then scarcely adequate to their wants. 

The duty was confided to the President and Senate Theap- 
to make the appointments to the great offices of state, ^ent'of 
The first in dignity and importance, that of Chief-Ju:-ticc officerg. 



312 THE NATIONAL DEBT. 

bk. VI. of the Supreme Court, was given to John Jay, who had 
Ch. 2. been a leading member of Congress, minister to Spain, 
A. D. one of the commissioners for peace, and acting secretary 

1789. for foreign aiFairs. Alexander Hamilton was made Se- 
cretary of the Treasury; Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of 
State; General Knox, Secretary of War; Edmund Ran- 
dolph, Attorney-General ; and Samuel Osgood, Postmas- 
ter-General. Generals Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Wil- 
liams, were respectively made collectors of Boston, New 
London, and Baltimore, and Colonel Lamb, collector of 
New York — revolutionary heroes whose virtues had kept 
them poor. 

Commercial treaties were soon after made with foreign 
powers, and with the Indian tribes, although all along 
the western frontiers affairs long continued in an unset- 
tled state. 
Tour of Congress adjourned September 24th, shortly after which 
pideat^ the President made a tour through the Eastern States, 
his re- and was everywhere received with an enthusiasm which 
cep ion. j^^^ never since been equalled. " We have gone through 
all the popish grades of worship,'^ wrote Trumbull, "and 
the President returns all fragrant with the odour of in- 
cense." On the day of his return to New York (Novem- 
ber 13th), the new convention of North Carolina voted 
to ratify the federal Constitution. 

1790. Congress reassembled on the 8th of January, 1790, 
and the President having recommended, amonar other 

Nation o ' o 

aidebt. things, that provision should be made for the payment 
of the interest of the national debt, this became the great 
subject of the session. The debates relative to the pay- 
ment of this debt were very animated; which, however, 
in spite of the different views advanced, tended to the 
maintenance of public credit. The foreign debt was 
nearly twelve millions, and the domestic was a little over 



REPORT ON THE SUBJECT OP SLAVERY. 813 

forty-two millions; in all, exceeding fifty-four millions, bk. ti. 
not including the state debts, which amounted to about ch. 2. 
twenty-five millions. An acrimonious debate followed j^ jy 
upon the proposition that the federal government should 1790. 
assume the state debts, which had been incurred in be- 
half of the common cause. It was supported by Law- 
rence, Ames, Sedgwick, Sherman, Fitzsimmons, Gerry, and 
others, and opposed by Stone, Livermore, Jackson, and 
"White; but it finally passed by a small majority. 

In the midst of the agitation growing out of the settle- Slavery 
ment of the public debt, a still more agitating question siave- 
was introduced, in reference to slavery and the slave- ^^^^^': 

^ •' ^ report 

trade, in the form of anti-slavery petitions j which, after on the 
passionate discussion, whether they should or should not ^^ ^^^ ' 
be received, were referred to a committee, who brought 
in the following report : — 

" That the migration or importation of such persons as 
any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit 
cannot be prohibited by Congress, prior to the year 1808. 

" That Congress has no authority to interfere in the 
emancipation of slaves, or in the treatment of them in 
any of the States ; it remaining with the several States 
alone to provide any regulations therein which humanity 
and true policy require. 

''That Congress has authority to restrain the citizens 
of the United States from carrying on the African slave- 
trade, for the purpose of supplying foreigners with slaves; 
and of providing for their humane treatment, during their 
passage, of slaves imported by the said citizens into the 
said States admitting such importations. 

" That Congress, also, has authority to prohibit foreign- 
ers from fitting out vessels in any port of the United 
States for transporting persons from Africa to any foreign 
port.'' ' 
27 



314 PRINCIPAL MEASURES OF CONGRESS. 

^^- ^^^' A great debate followed as to the reception of the arti- 
Gii. 2. cles of the report, and the aflfair was finally compromised 
A. D. by admitting the report on the journal of the House, 

1790. without any legislation on the subjects to which it referred. 
This was the commencement of that series of discussions 
which from time to time have agitated Congress, and 
which, thus far, have happily not been productive of any 
calamitous results. 

Rhode Early in June, Rhode Island was admitted into the 

joins the Union, and now, of their own accord, all the States of 

Union, ^ho Original confederacy were reunited. 

Nation- Before the session closed, provision was made for 

al debt . 

and the P^ji^g ofif the national debt; and the tariff was modified, 

tariff, the duties being increased on most imported articles. 

Natural- An act was also passed providing a uniform rule of 

ofViiens iiaturalizatiou, by which any alien white person, who had 

resided within the United States for two years, on proof 

of good character and upon taking an oath or affirmation 

to support the Constitution, might become a citizen of the 

United States. 

Patents Amoug the other acts was one which secured to invent- 

*°r'Tt ^^® ^^ ^^^ machines the right to enjoy for fourteen years 

the exclusive use of their inventions ; and then secured to 

authors, for the same time, a copyright on books, to be 

renewed, if the author were living, for an additional term 

of fourteen years. By a recent act, this term has been 

extended to twenty-eight years. 

Mari- Maritime regulations were also enacted, in reference to 

^a- *^6 wages of seamen, requiring a written contract, which 

tions. specified the voyage and rate of compensation, and also 

Trade providing for the enforcement of obedience to orders. 

■with the 

Indians. Congress also made regulations for trade with the Indians, 
on the present basis, by which no sales of lands by them 
were valid, unless made at some public treaty. 



CHARTER OF THE BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. 315 

The criminal code of laws for the punishment of crimes bk. vi. 
against the United States was also established, by which Ch. 2. 
death was made the penalty for treason, murder, piracy, and a. d. 
forgery — the latter crime being now punishable by fine 1790. 
and imprisonment. Bribery was also made punishable 
by fine and imprisonment. 

As early as this session, the salary for foreign ministers salary 
was fixed, and has continued the same to these times. ^^^^ 

' ^ reiga 

Nine thousand dollars and an outfit for ministers pleni- miais- 
potentiary, and half that sum for charges des afikires. 

Such were the principal measures of the second session i 

of the first Congress, which adjourned August 12th, to 
meet in the following December. 

The first Congress reassembled on the 6th of Decem- Propoai- 
ber, 1790, in Philadelphia, and one of the first subjects fo^^ 
which came under its consideration was a national bank, "national 

' bank. 

proposed by Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, in order 
to facilitate the monetary transactions of the government, 
to provide for a redeemable currency, and to furnish a 
resource for temporary loans. At that time there were 
only four banks in the country: one at Philadelphia, esta- 
blished by Robert Morris ; one in New York ; one in Bos- 
ton ; and one in Baltimore ; the circulation of whose bills 
was confined chiefly to those cities, and did not meet the 
wants of the country. 

The bill for this bank encountered but little opposition Bank 
in the Senate, and passed the House by a vote of thirty- unUwi 
nine to twenty. It was, however, opposed in the cabinet states 
by Jefferson and Randolph, as unconstitutional ; yet, it cd. 
nevertheless received the signature of the President. Its 
charter was limited to twenty years, and its capital to ten 
millions. Subscriptions were paid, three-fourths in stock 
of the United States, and one-fourth in gold and silver — 
being thus modelled on the Bank of England, and sub- 



316 PROSPERITY OF THE COUNTRY. 

Bk. VI. stantially on the principle of the new banking law of 
Ch. 2. New York, by which a deposit of government stocks ia 
j^ D^ required as security for the amount of circulating bills. 
1791. The bank was forbidden to hold lands or buildings, and 
all dealing in goods and merchandise was prohibited. Its 
general business was restricted to dealing in bills of ex- 
change. Its notes were payable on demand in gold or 
silver, and were made receivable in all payments to the 
United States. 
Admis- The establishment of a bank was the great measure of 
won of ^^g session, during which Vermont was admitted into the 
mont. Union. Shortly after the adjournment of Congress, Wash- 
ington made a tour of three months through the Southern 
Scat of States. On his progress, he stopped several days on the 
men™ bauks of the Potomac, and made use of the authority 
vested in him to select a site for the future seat of go- 
vernment. The new city was laid out on a magnificent 
scale, and many who anticipated its sudden and rapid 
growth were ruined by the zeal with which they embarked 
in building and speculation. 
Foreign In August, 1791, Great Britain condescended to send 
^^]^' a minister to the United States. George Hammond was 
the first who received this honour. In December, Thomas 
Pinckney, of South Carolina, was appointed minister to 
England, and Gouverneur Morris was sent to France. 
Prospe- Prosperity seemed now to dawn upon the country, 
nty of rj^j^g financcs were placed upon a satisfactory basis ; the 
country, credit of the country was restored, and relations of peace 
were established with various European states. Wash- 
ington had the confidence of the nation, and the great parties 
which subsequently divided it had not then attracted much 
attention, although they were in process of formation. 
Indian The worst feature of the time was the unsettled na- 
siiTiurs ^^^,^ ^£ Indian affairs on the western frontiers. The Six 



THE FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS. 317 

Nations were unfriendly, and the Cherokees complained bk. ti. 
of encroachments, while actual hostilities were carried on, ch. 2. 
under Generals St. Clair and Butler, among the Indians j^ jy 
on the AYabash. Near the head-waters of this river (No- 1791. 
vemher 4th), St. Clair was unexpectedly attacked, and his Defeat 
force totally routed. General Butler was killed, and St. of st. 
Clair narrowly escaped. The loss of men during this 
enterprise reached 900 — a great calamity, and one of the 
most signal defeats the Americans had ever sustained 
with the Indians. It produced the greatest alarm on the 
north-western frontiers, but the Indians failed to follow 
up the advantages they had gained. 

In the mean time the second Congress assembled at The 2d 
Philadelphia. Among the most distinguished of its new g^"gg_ 
members was Aaron Burr, successor to General Schuyler, 
as senator from New York ; Artemus Ward and George 
Cabot, of Massachusetts; James Ilillhouse, of Connec- 
ticut J and Jonathan Dayton, of New Jersey. 

By this time the two great parties of the country were Federai- 
fully organized — the Federalists and the Republicans. Rgp^^n. 
The leaders of the former were Adams and Hamilton ; cans, 
those of the latter were Jefferson and Burr. The former 
had an ascendency both in the Senate and the House, and 
were the advocates of the financial schemes which were 
recommended by Hamilton and carried out by the first 
Congress : they also favoured the idea of a greater cen- 
tralization of power in the general government than was 
desired by the other party. The Republicans feared the 
abuse of power, and sought to narrow its exercise by the 
federal government, and were disposed to allow absolute 
authority to the popular judgment. They, moreover, were 
great defenders of state rights, and feared the absorption 
of the states in the general government. The latter party 
inclined to be more democratic in its views — the former 
27* 



318 MEASURES OF THE SECOND CONGRESS. 

bk. VI. was not disinclined to ceremonious distinctions and he- 
ch. 2. reditary rank. The party of Adams and Hamilton dis- 
A. D. trusted the French llevolution, shuddered in view of its 
1791. excesses, and absolutely abhorred the "Rights of Man" 
as put forth by Paine. The party of Jefiferson sympa- 
thized with the French Revolution as tending to promote 
greater liberty throughout the world, and distrusted those 
financial measures of the new administration as tending to 
the ascendency of an aristocracy of wealth. It denounced 
the funding system, the bank, and the assumption of the 
state debts, 
iiatio of One of the first measures of the new Congress was to 
fix the ratio of representation at one member for every 
thirty-three thousand inhabitants, thus increasing the 
number of members to one hundred and five. 
Increase A third tarifi" act was also passed, increasing the duties 
revenue, ou imported articles. This was done in order to increase 
the revenue — an act made necessary by the increasing 
expenses of government, Indian hostilities, and additions 
made to the army. The presence of the Indian war also 
led to the organization of the militia, on the basis on 
which it has since remained. 
Mintes- By an act during this session the Mint was finally 
,jj, '^ " established, and the coins were made which still compose 
Impress ^^^ Currency of the country. A debate occurred in rcfer- 
of the ence to the device and impress of the coins. There was 
no objection to the national emblem of the eagle, with 
the legend, " The United States of America," on one 
side ; but serious exceptions were taken to having the 
heads of the presidents represented on the coin, as this 
appeared like an imitation of monarchical governments. 
The emblematical figure of Liberty was accordingly sub- 
stituted, much to the satisfaction of the people, so jealous 
of all approximation to royalty, and not without the secret 



repre 
BentJi 
tion. 



coins. 



TROGRESS OF TUE COUNTRY. 319 



Bk. VI. 



indifference of great men, who preferred the reality to 

the blandishments of power. ^^- ^• 

These were the principal acts, materially affecting the a. d. 
great interests of the country, passed during this session; 1T92. 
but considerable acrimony had been manifested by the Party 
two rival parties, which now began to attract attention 'i"^"^' 
and divide the nation — an acrimony, which Washing- 
ton seriously lamented, and did all in his power to pre- 
vent. This increased, rather than diminished, after Con- 
gress adjourned, and a bitter newspaper contest was car- 
ried on by Jefferson and Hamilton, between whom arose 
a personal as well as political difference. 

The second session of the second Congress was charac- Relative 
terized for warm debates on the redemption of the public l^^^^ 
debt, on the right of petition, and on the slavery question, parties. 
Until now, the federal party had the superiority, but the 
Republicans obtained a victory over the Federalists in 
relation to Hamilton's scheme of paying off the public 
debt; and such was the opposition to him, that he was 
openly accused of failing to account for a million and a 
half of public money ; but this charge was triumphantly 
refuted, and resulted in raising the illustrious character 
of the Secretary of the Treasury still higher in public 
estimation. 

The second Congress terminated without passing such Success 
important acts as the first; nor was it to be expected, for govem- 
government was now fairly organized — all things gave *"«"*• 
evidence, in spite of party animosities, of a successful 
experiment. 

During the first administration of Washington, a great -vvasb- 
step had been made in the progress of the nation. Con- J"g*o°'s 

-, , .1 T /. ^ ^ first ad- 

fidence in the credit of the country was restored. Com- minis- 
merce had greatly prospered ; manufactures had arisen ; *''*^'*^°* 
the exports nearly equalled the imports ; population had 



320 ARRIVAL OF GENET, MINISTER FROM FRANCE. 

bk. VI. increased; industry had received a favourable impulse; 
Ch. 2. law and order reigned throughout the land, and peace and 
A. p. plenty added stability to those great institutions which 
1793. the political genius of the age had devised. The Post- 
Office, the Mint, and the Bank, went into successful ope- 
ration. Judicial dignity was vindicated. The Army was 
increased, and appropriations were made for all measures 
necessary to carry on an efficient government. The United 
States began to attract the attention of the civilized world, 
and diplomatic agents were freely sent to and received 
from the principal nations of Europe. 
Second In vicw of this rising prosperity and of the pressure 
onvash- of domestic cares and feeble health, the venerable Presi- 
ingtou (j(3Qt desired to retire. But, yielding to the importunities 
Adams, of fricuds, and consulting the public welfare rather than 
his own ease and interests, he consented to preside 
once again over the nation he had saved by his arms 
and councils. On the 4th of March, 1793, he was a 
second time inaugurated as President of the United States, 
after an unanimous election. The choice for Vice-Presi- 
dent was not made without violent party outcry ; for the 
Federalists and Republicans were now fairly pitted against 
each other. The Federalists gained the day, and John 
Adams again became the Vice-President, in opposition to 
George Clinton, of New York, the republican candidate, 
and highest on the list. 
-VTar Soon after the second inauguration of Washington, 

betwoen jjg^s came of the declaration of war by France against 
and England, which excited intense interest throughout the 
England j^^|.Jqjj^ ^^^ g^jlj more widely separated the great political 
Arrival parties. Five days after. Genet arrived as minister to the 
United States from Eepublican France. What course 
should the government adopt ? Should he be received ? 
And, should a proclamation of neutrality be issued ? 



RECALL OP GENET DEMANDED. 321 

Our government adopted, in view of those great com- bk. vi. 
motions in the Old World, the course which has since Ch. 2. 
been pursued, and which has settled into a system — j^ j) 
that of neutrality — a friendly and impartial conduct to- 1793. 
wards all foreign belligerent powers. Such, however. Neutral 
was the popular enthusiasm towards France and hatred ff "^^^ "' 

* ^ ^ the go- 

towards England, that it would not have been difficult to vern- 
embroil the nation in war, by making a common cause ^'^^ ' 
with the French Republic. But Washington was too 
wise and prudent to yield to such a course, and he was 
happily sustained by the great leaders of the nation. 

The French minister, however, was not so prudent, ciiarao 
He came over as an agent to draw the United States into c^duct 
the cause of French liberty, rather than as a diplomatist, ofQeae** 
to keep a watch over the interests of his country. He 
was a mere partisan, inflamed with revolutionary ideas, 
and full of wrong notions respecting his diplomatic duties. 
Hence he was guilty of various indiscretions and follies, 
unbecoming his position. He caused privateers to be 
fitted out, manned mostly by Americans, but under the 
French flag, to make prizes of English merchantmen. 
He assumed authority to grant commissions to French 
consuls in the United States to try and condemn prizes 
brought by French cruisers into the American ports. 
He made himself ofiensive to the government by various 
acts of folly and presumption. He even was prepared to 
struggle with the executive in furtherance of his impolitic 
mission. Supported by noisy enthusiasts and fanatical ar- 
ticles in the newspapers in sympathy with revolutionary 
France, he attempted to appeal from the President to the 
people. Under such circumstances, the government de- His re- 
manded his recall, and was sustained by the nation at ^^^j^ 
large, in spite of the fanatical advocates of France, — a 
measure extremely necessary, not only to support the 



322 RESIGNATION OF JEFFERSON. 

bk.vi. dignity of the American government^ but to prevent a 
Ch. 2. rupture with Great Britain. 

A. D. Great Britain, at that period, was both sensitive and 
1793. arrogant as to her claims on the ocean, and had her own 
Arro- interpretation as to belligerent rights — claiming the right 
gance of ^^ g^j^e French property in American vessels, against all 
Britain, the Settled laws of nations ; and also the still more ques- 
tionable right of seizing neutral vessels bound to France, 
when loaded with bread-stuffs. The English govern- 
ment also made itself obnoxious by pressing into its ser- 
vice British-born seamen when found on the ocean even 
in American ships, which made vessels liable to vexatious 
detention and subject to constant insult; and, as this 
pretended right was liable to much abuse, American sea- 
men were frequently absolutely pressed into the English 
naval service. 
Its effect This arrogant and unjust claim, and which afterwards 
public was no small cause of the late war, led to considerable 
"^amd. sympathy with Genet and France, and came near precipi- 
tating the United States into a premature contest with 
the country with which they had but lately made peace. 
Genet, however, had proved himself so insolent, rash, and 
headstrong, that but little sympathy was found for him 
among the more considerate and intelligent of the people. 
Meeting Amid the agitations produced by Genet and the French 
3d Con- Revolution and rival parties, the third Congress assembled 
gress. (^December 2d, 1793), and, soon after, Jefferson retired 
jeflfer- {^0100. his post, alleging his disgust of politics and desire 
tires. for the pleasures of a rural life, with the respect of all 
parties for his abilities, and with the full confidence of 
the President in his patriotism and integrity. His place 
was supplied by Randolph, the Attorney-General, and 
his again by William Bradford, of Pennsylvania. 

The first business of importance after the affair of 



BRITISH ORDERS IN COUNCIL. 



323 



Creation 
of a 



Genet was disposed of, was in reference to the piracies bk. yi. 
of the Algerines. It was a question, whether peace with Ch. 2. 
them should be purchased by giving a ransom for those a. d. 
whom they held in bondage, or whether a squadron should 170-1. 
be fitted out to demand restitution. It was determined 
to adopt both measures — to purchase a treaty, and also 
to pro\dde for a naval armament. A bill was passed, ^^i^^^^*- 
which authorized the building of six frigates of forty-four 
. guns each, and two of thirty-six guns each — the first navy, 
step towards the creation of a national navy. A bill was iiar- 
soon after reported for fortifying the harbours, and works fortified, 
were commenced at Portsmouth, Portland, Gloucester, 
Salem, Boston, Newport, New London, New York, Phi- 
ladelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, Alexandria, Norfolk, 
Georgetown, Charleston, Savannah, and St. Mary, being 
then the principal cities on the coast. Arsenals and ar- Arse- 
mories were added to those at Springfield and Carlisle, erected. 
These belligerent operations were undertaken to protect 
commerce against the Barbary pirates, to inspire bellige- 
rent nations with respect for our rights as neutrals, and 
to secure us from insult in our harbours and coasts. 

At this time a great excitement existed against Great British 
Britain in consequence of the British orders in council, °n coun- 
which authorized the detention and examination of all "^• 
ships laden with the produce of French colonies. These 
tended to destroy the rights of neutrals, and war was ap- 
prehended. But these orders were soon superseded by 
new ones, which restricted the capture of French produce 
in neutral vessels which belonged to France. Still the 
excitement against England continued, and Washington, Special 
wishing to avert the gathering storm, proposed to send a S' lou-^ 
special minister to London, and Hamilton was the person '*°°- 
whom he desired to send. But such an outcry was raised 
against him, that Jay was selected in his stead. 



824 THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION. 

bk. VI. Soon after the adjournment of Congress, an insurrec- 

Ch. 2. tion occurred in Western Pennsylvania, called the Whis- 

A. D. ^^y Insurrection, which arose from the diflficulty of col- 

1794. lecting excise-duty from the distillers. The marshal of 

insiir- the district was intercepted in the discharge of his duties 

rection ]^j ^ party of armed men, and he and his officers com- 

in Penn- J r J y 

syirania pcllcd to flee for their lives. They were afterwards a 
tacked by the mob, and blood was spilled. Various 
other outrages were perpetrated, and the rioters, headed 
by some prominent men opposed to the excise-duty, ap- 
pealed to the militia, actually mustered 7000 men, and 
Prompt stood out in open resistance to the laws. These outrages 
for 'iS appeared to be alarming symptoms to the government, 
euppres- ^]^q decided on rigid and prompt measures, to prevent 
the popular contagion from spreading. A proclamation 
was issued, and a demand made on the governors of Penn- 
sylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, for a force 
of 13,000 men — soon raised to 15,000. The insurgent 
counties had about 16,000 men in the field. The Pre- 
sident, wishing to prevent bloodshed, also sent commis- 
sioners to settle the difficulties. The counties called a 
convention, and two hundred delegates assembled, and 
appointed a committee of fifteen to meet the commission- 
ers. Several conferences were held, not very satisfactory 
to either party, although the demands of the government 
were moderate. Consequently, resort was had to more 
decisive measures. The government troops advanced in 
Law and earnest upon the rebels. Fear and alarm seized them, in 
stored!^ vicw of the great preparations which were made to sub- 
due them ; and they laid down their arms, in unconditional 
submission to the laws. The prompt measures of the Pre- 
sident had a great moral efiect, which much strengthened 
the arms of government, as all unsuccessful rebellions do, 
and occasioned great rejoicing, especially to the Federalists. 



jay's treaty with great BRITAIN. 325 

Scarcely was this rebellion suppressed, before news ar- bk. vi. 
rived of the complete victory of General Wayne over Ch. 2. 
those Indians who had defeated St, Clair. A great bat- a. d. 
tie was fought, on the Maumee, which broke for ever the 1794. 
power of the Indians in that quarter. 

Congress reassembled on the 4th of November, and im- Secret 
mediately proceeded to the consideration of the President's onhe*'^ 
message, which was mainly occupied by an account of "Jacobins 
the late insurrection in Pennsylvania, and which traced 
the disturbances in part to the secret societies of which 
Genet, the French minister, had been one of the chief 
promoters — societies inimical to the conservation of true 
liberty. But these ultra democratic societies received a 
blow, soon after, more effectual even than the one given 
by Washington, through the downfall of Robespierre and 
the Jacobin clubs, with whose sentiments these secret 
societies sympathized. 

Before Congress adjourned, information was received Treaty 
of an important treaty which Jay succeeded in making Great 
with the government of Great Britain, but which had ^"**'"' 
been made only with great difficulty and by mutual con- 
cessions — not in all respects desirable, but the best which 
could be obtained. 

By this treaty, signed by Jay November 19th, 1794, itssti- 
the north-eastern boundary was fixed ; mutual losses sus- J^"^^' 
tained by merchants in consequence of seizure were in- 
demnified ; reciprocity in trading with the Indians was 
guarantied ; American vessels were to be received into 
British ports on an equality with English vessels ; con- 
traband articles were specified, and the maritime code re- 
specting the rights of neutrals was modified to the advan- 
t'lge of the United States. This treaty, which removed 
many of the causes of irritation between the two countries, 
and which, on the whole, placed the United States on a 
28 



326 RATIFICATION OF THE TREATY. 

bk. vi^ footing of greater equality, encountered much opposition 
Ch. 2. from the republican party, who saw in it injury to France, 
A. D. a base compliance with English arrogance, and ignomini- 

1795. ous cession of American rights. But what excited the 
Eecogni- ficrccst oppositiou, especially from the South, was the re- 
oicT ^^ cognition by Jay o-f the debts due British merchants by 
debts, citizens of the United States, previous to the Revolution, 

which amounted to £600,000, and, by the treaty, were 
guarantied by the government, but which the debtors had 
hoped to escape. This obligation to pay those old debts 
much inflamed party animosity, and was one of the causes 
of hostility to England ; and, as the South was more in- 
debted than the North, the hatred there was proportion- 
ally greater. 
Speech ^]^q treaty was not immediately ratified, on account of 

ofFisher . . -^ . ^ , -, . ^^ j 

Ames, its great miportance, and Congress had agam reassembled 
before it was finally acted on. No subject had, since the 
adoption of the Constitution, called out so much feeling, 
talent, and eloquence. Fisher Ames, of Massachusetts, 
made himself memorable by his wonderful speech on the 
occasion — one of the most able ever made in Congress. 
Vice-President Adams, who heard the speech, thus de- 
scribed it, in a letter to his wife : " Judge Iredell and I 
happened to sit together. Our feelings beat in unison. 
'My God ! how great he is,' says Iredell. * Noble!' said 
I. ' Bless my stars ! ' continued he, ' I never heard any 
thing so great since I was born.' ' Divine!' said I; and 
thus we went on with our interjections, not to say tears, to 
the end — not a dry eye in the House. The situation of 
the man excited compassion. The ladies wished his great 
soul had a better body." 

1796. In spite of the opposition, and much to the chagrin of 
Treaty the Kepublicans, the treaty was ratified (April 30th, 1796) 

the most important which the nation had yet made, since 



jifferson's opinions of the federalists. 327 

it favoured peace with England, and conciliatory mea- bk. vt. 
sures. Jefferson, who had retired to Monticello, to write Ch. 2. 
letters to all parts of the country and organize a more a. d. 
effective opposition, as well as to seek repose in farming, 1796. 
was independent and bitter, and thus wrote — " In place jeffer- 
of that noble love of liberty which carried us through the ^^^'^ , 

•^ '-' Tiews of 

war, an Anglican, monarchical, aristocratic party has there- 
sprung up, whose avowed object is to draw over us the 
substance, as they have already done the forms of the 
British government. Against us are the executive, the 
judiciary, two of the branches of the legislature, all the 
officers of the government, all who want to be officers, all 
timid men, who prefer the calm of despotism to the bois- 
terous sea of liberty, British merchants, and Americans 
trading on British capital, speculators and holders in 
the banks and public funds — a contrivance invented 
for the purpose of corruption and for assimilating us in 
all things, to the rotten as well as sound part of the Bri- 
tish model. It would give you a fever, were I to name 
to you the apostates who have gone over to these heresies 
— men who were Samsons in the field and Solomons in 
the council, but who have their heads shorn by the har- 
lot of England." 

Such was the bitter and strong language with which Bitter- 
Jefferson and the heads of the republican or democratic party 
party, in those days, attacked the Federalists and their ^^^"*" 
principles. Such was the party spirit succeeding the re- 
volutionary strife. No matter for the virtues or the 
greatness of the men belonging to the federal party — it 
was said of them, as Jefferson said of Ames, when he 
electrified the House and urged peace and moderation, 
*' Curse on his virtues ! they have ruined his country." 

Yet, amid these conflicting strifes of politicians, Wash- 
ington was neither duped nor perplexed. He alone stood 



828 Washington's complaint of party injustice. 

sg- ^i- above all parties and all sects. He alone had an eye to 
Ch. 2. the highest good of the country, and inflexibly pursued 
A. D. his course, calmly, wisely, although occasionally yield- 
1796. ing to bursts of indignation and passion. Washington 
Policy sought liberty, but also sought peace and justice, and 
inTon^" ^^^^^^'^ ^ middle course between parties, not because it 
was a middle course, in mediis tuiissimus ibis, but be- 
cause it was a true and wise course. Still, he felt deeply 
the evil of that partisan warfare, which has not yet passed 
away, and never will pass away, in a free country, so long 
as men have power and men are degenerate. Said Wash- 
Party ingtou, " I had no conception, till within the last year or 
™reTen- ^'^'^> ^^^^ parties would or could go the length I have 
tations. l3een witness to; nor did I believe that it was in the 
bounds of probability, hardly within those of possibility, 
that, while I was using my utmost exertions to establish 
a national character of our own, as far as our obligations 
and justice would permit, with every nation of the earth, 
and wished, by steering a steady course, to preserve this 
country from the horrors of a desolating war, I should be 
accused of being the enemy of our country, and subject to 
the influence of another ; and to prove it, that every act 
of my administration would be tortured, and the grossest 
and most insidious misrepresentations of them made, by 
giving one side only of a subject, and that, too, in such 
exaggerated and indecent terms as could scarcely be ap- 
plied to Nero, a notorious defaulter, or even a common 
pick-pocket." 
Inter- Such the auimositics of party — such, in Washington's 
*^*^-th^ own language, the misrepresentations to which it would 
Great lead. Still, wisdom had not left the land, and, in spite 
securS. of all opposition, a treaty with Great Britain was made, 
and peace and profitable intercourse guarantied for the 
next ten years. 



TENNESSEE ADMITTED INTO THE UNION. 329 

Other treaties, also, were ratified with different nations bk.vi. 
and with the Indians. Eleven hundred Indian warriors, Ch. 2. 
of twelve distinct tribes, met General Wayne in council, a. d. 
at Fort Grenville, and settled the boundaries of their re- 1796. 
spective territories. A tract of 25,000 square miles, in Indian 
the eastern and southern part of Ohio, was ceded to the ^^"^^^y- 
United States ; for which, and for various posts or trad- 
ing-houses, $20,000 in presents, and $9500 annually, 
were given to the Indians. A treaty was made with Treaties 
Algiers, but only by payment to that piratical state of Algiers 
nearly $800,000. By a treaty which Mr. Pinckney made |^^.^ 
with Spain, the Florida boundary, long in dispute, was 
settled, and the navigation of the Mississippi made free 
to both parties, through its entire length. The Indian 
boundary was also determined, on the basis of Wayne's 
treaty, which secured to the Indians full one-half of the 
territory between the Atlantic and Mississippi, and be- 
yond which citizens of the United States were prohibited 
to hunt, or fish, or settle, without permission — nay, even 
to trade, without a license. This Indian peace led to the Tennes- 
sale and settlement of public lands north of the Ohio, '^i^teii 
By the terms of the act constituting the territory south into tiie 
of the Ohio, the inhabitants claimed the right to be ad- 
mitted into the Union whenever their number reached 
60,000. A constant tide of immigration having set into 
that territory, a convention was held, and a state consti- 
tution adopted, and Tennessee was added to the United 
States (January 11th, 1796). 

The French government had requested the recall of Monroe 
Morris, after the difficulties with Genet, which request pralw. 
w^as acceded to, and James Monroe, a warm advocate 
of France, was sent to fill the vacancy, arriving soon after 
the fall of Robespierre. He found American affairs in 
confusion, and zeal for America much abated, since the 
28* 



330 ADAMS ELECTED PRESIDENT. 

bk. VI. American government had not rendered any assistance, 
Ch. 2. as was hoped, to the French revolutionists. But he 
^ J) endeavoured to soothe French prejudices; and in the at- 
1796. tempt he made promises which his government could not 
fulfil, in justice to England or in accordance with its uni- 
form policy ; on account of which, and partly to give sa- 
tisfaction to Washington, he was recalled, and Charles C. 
Pinckney appointed in his place (September, 1796). 
Farewell Meanwhile the time for an election of a President drew 
ofWash- near, and Washington resolved not again to be a candi- 
ington. ^g^^g^ Accordingly, he issued (September 19th) his famous 
Farewell Address to the American people, in which he 
especially enjoined them to maintain the integrity of the 
Union and of the Federal Constitution, and to keep free 
from sectional jealousies and animosities, as well as pas- 
sionate attachment to and inveterate antipathy against 
particular foreign nations. 
Election Ti^jg addrcss, appearing so late, did not give much time 
dent for electioneering. Still, parties were very busy. The 
Adams, undoubted leader of the Federalists was Hamilton ; but, 
as Adams was older, had performed great Revolutionary 
services, was already Vice-President, was a man of ac- 
knowledged ability and patriotism, and the great represen- 
tative of New England, his claims were highest, and he 
became the chief candidate of his party. His great op- 
ponent was Jefierson, over whom he gained his election by 
a majority of one — so greatly had the democratic party 
increased. 

The last session of the fourth Congress commenced, as 
usual, early in December, 1796; but nothing of conse- 
quence was enacted — all parties being full of the ap- 
proaching inauguration of the new President. 

fugurl ^* ^^^^ P^^^^ ^^ *^^ '^^^ ^^ March, 1797, in presence 
tion. of both houses of Congress, judges and other dignitaries, 



RETIREMENT OF WASHINGTON-. 331 

as well as of "Washington himself. He delivered an ela- bk. vi. 
borate and effective speech, alluding eloquently to the Ch. 2. 
exalted character and deeds of the ex- President, and pro- ^ d^ 
fessing his determination, with the aid of Heaven, to de- 1797. 
fend and support the Constitution. 

All parties felt deeply the retirement of Washington, Wash- 
and rendered him every mark of gratitude and respect. J-etire^. 
In a few days after the inauguration of his successor, he 
retired to Mount Vernon, to spend the evening of his 
glorious life in peaceful and quiet pleasures, in the dig- 
nity of a gentleman farmer, with books, and friends, and 
nature — cheered by the voice of conscience and of the 
world, and constantly refreshed by splendid recollections 
— by the consciousness of having rendered the greatest 
blessing to his country which God, in his providence, had 
ever given it into the power of man to bestow. It was ^^^ 
during his military career that the battles of Independ- our ve- 
ence were fought. It was during his administration as °^^^**'^'^ 
President of the United States that the Constitution was 
established, and those great acts passed by Congress 
which gave direction to the future progress of the coun- 
try. It was Washington who delivered the nation from 
a foreign yoke. It was Washington who directed the 
helm of the ship of state in the most eventful periods of 
the civil and constitutional history of the country. Sure- 
ly, to him the world has hitherto furnished no parallel. 
Let us, let future generations, venerate his name — for 
by his spirit, his wisdom, his courage, and his strength 
of character, he, more than any other mortal, laid the 
foundation of American gi'eatness. 



CHAPTER III. 

ADMINISTRATION OF ADAMS. 

bk. VI. President Adams, on his accession to power, made 



A. D. 



no important changes in the cabinet, and retained the 

ministers who had officiated under Washington. Thomas 

1797. Jefferson, as Vice-President, presided over the Senate, in 

which the federal party still predominated. 
state of One of the first things which demanded the attention 
the reia- ^f ^^le exccutive was the treatment which the French 

tions 

with Directory had shown towards the foreign ministers. The 
^^ ■ French, in the fury of revolutionary excess and trium- 
phant power, were disappointed and indignant that Ame- 
rica had rendered no important service to the cause of 
their revolution, and apparently even favoured the Eng- 
lish, as they chose to infer from the treaty made by Jay. 
Nor did the French government like the recall of Mon- 
roe, who then sympathized with revolutionary France 
more than Pinckney, whom Washington had appointed 
in his place. Accordingly, the Directory refused to re- 
ceive Pinckney, or any other ministers, until the griev- 
ances of which the French complained were satisfactorily 
redressed. The hostility of the Directory was still fur- 
ther increased when the news arrived of the election 
of Adams to the presidency, instead of Jefferson, the 
French favourite. Pinckney was treated with studied 
insolence and neglect, without any recognition of his 

(332J 



SPECIAL MISSION TO PRANCE. 333 

official position. Nor was this all. A decree was passed bk. vi. 
against American commerce, by which American vessels Ch. 3. 
and cargoes were liable to capture for any cause recog- j^ jy 
nized as lawful by the British treaty. This was little 1797. 
short of a declaration of war, which was not agreeable to 
any party in America — for Napoleon was in the height 
of his victories, and all the nations of Europe were in 
terror and alarm. 

Under these circumstances, the President resolved to Special- 
send a special mission to France — for it was the object ™'^''^*^'* 
of the French government to compel the United States ^'^aJi"^- 
to renounce the British treaty, to renew all ancient dif- 
ferences with Great Britain, and, in short, to make use of 
the United States as an instrument against England, whose 
naval and commercial greatness had ever been the object 
of French jealousy. The whole secret of the favour ex- 
tended to this country by France, during the revolution- 
ary struggle, was to injure England : and France has 
been friendly or hostile in proportion as America has 
been hostile or friendly to Great Britain. It is a mistake 
to suppose that French alliance was rendered from know- 
ledge of or respect for this country. France looked upon 
us as a weak, divided, money-making nation, careless of 
national honour, and not disposed to resent insult, as 
proved by the contemptuous treatment of Washington 
and this country by Genet, when he was minister — 
a treatment not sufficiently punished, and even sustained 
by violent partisans opposed to a strong executive. 

Nor was the solicitude which the federal party felt Cause 
respecting French ascendency without foundation. Na- 
poleon was advancing from conquering to conquer, and 
his country seemed to be rapidly realizing the dream of 
Louis XIV. respecting universal empire. The Bank of 
England had stopped specie payment, threatening destruc- 



334 DIFFICULTIES WITH FRANCE. 

bk. VI. tive to British financial power. There had been a great 
cii.3. naval mutiny at the time, and English statesmen were 
A. D. perplexed with difficulties. It was even seriously feared 
1798. that war might be declared by France, and this country 

as well as England be threatened with invasion. 
Envoys Great pains were taken by the President in the appoint- 
to Paris, ujent of envoys to France, and, after great deliberation, 
John Marshall, of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry, of Mas- 
sachusetts, were added to the mission. They departed 
separately to France, in July and August, there to unite 
with Pinckney in a new attempt to terminate all differ- 
ences. Having joined each other in October, at Paris, 
they sent notice of their arrival to the Minister of Foreign 
Affairs, Prince Talleyrand, who informed them that as 
soon as the report on American affairs was finished, he 
The de- would let them know what was to be done. After an 
^^^^^ interval of ten days, they were informed that the Direc- 
French tory wcro cxasperatcd against the United States for some 
tory. parts of the President's spee(;h at the opening of CongreBS, 
and that no audience would be granted until the conclu- 
sion of a private unofficial negotiation. The person sent 
to negotiate was Hottinguer, the banker, who informed 
the envoys that a loan to the Republic, and a private 
douceur of $240,000 for the members of the Directory, 
Reject- would be insisted on. A long unofficial intercourse en- 
!j ^y sued, which ended, notwithstandino^ all the arts of French 

the en- ^ ' ° 

voys. diplomacy, in the refusal of the envoys to grant a loan 
or a douceur. The agents of Talleyrand threatened war 
and other calamities, but the envoys were firm, indig- 
nant, and patriotic. The French evidently hoped to ter- 
rify the envoys into a course not merely undignified and 
mean, but opposed to the whole policy and Constitution 
of this country. Nothing was settled. No official inter- 
course took place, and Pinckney and Marshall returned 



PREPARATIONS FOR WAR. 335 

home, leaving Gerry to manage negotiations with Talley- bk.vi- 
rand. Infamous proposals were made to him, and ad- Ch. 3. 
vantage taken of his weak points; but Gerry maintained a. d. 
the national honour, and finally, after unsuccessful nego- 1798. 
tiation, returned to America. Nothing showed the grasp- 
ing, unprincipled, rapacious, contemptible meanness of 
the French Directory more than the overtures unoflficially 
made to the American envoys, which virtually amounted 
to secret bribery to the French executive, and a repudia- 
tion of the treaty with Great Britain and of that neutral 
policy which the American government had then and 
has since constantly maintained. 

The American government, long before the return of Preparp/- 
the envoys, prepared for war ; and Congress authorized ^^^ ^^^ 
the President to instruct the commander of the national 
ships of war to seize any armed vessel which committed 
depredations on American commerce — for the merchant- 
vessels of the Americans were still seized by the French, 
in defiance of all neutral rights, and property amounting 
to more than a million of dollars had been unjustly seized. 
Moreover, an a.ct was passed (June 12th, 1798) suspend- 
ing all commercial intercourse with France. On the 25th 
of June, the President authorized merchant-vessels to de- 
fend themselves by force against search or seizure, and 
large appropriations were made for the navy. 

Anticipating a war with France, Congress, before ad- Wash- 
journing, appointed Washington lieutenant-general and accents 
commander-in-chief of all the forces raised or to be raised ^^^ com- 
in the United States, and the hero accepted the appoint- chief, 
mcnt, although reluctant, in his old age, to leave hLs 
peaceful pursuits at Mount Yernon. In view of the con- 
duct of the French Directory — " its insidious hostilities," 
said he, "to our government,^' "disregard of treaties," 
" war upon defenceless commerce,'' "treatment of minis- 



836 OVERTURES MADE BY FRANCE. 

bk. vi. ters/' and ^^ demands amounting to tribute/^ In the ap- 
Ch. 3. pointment of generals and other high officers, Adams acted 
A. D. without much advice, and a coldness between him and his 
1798. cabinet resulted. He was jealous of Hamilton, and would 
have deprived him of a high military appointment, as first 
major-general, had not Washington insisted upon it as 
the only condition upon which he himself would serve. 
Adams's great defect was unwillingness to ask or receive 
advice, trusting to his own judgment alone, which was 
often warped by his strong passions and prejudices. He 
thus did great injury to his party, and was by no means 
its oracle, as Jefferson was of the Republicans. 
French Upou the return of Gerry to the United States, the 
to ream- French government, really not desiring war, but only a 
diiation bribe, made advances to reconciliation, took off the em- 
bargo imposed on American shipping, and released those 
who were imprisoned ; which, however, was of no great 
consequence, since but few American vessels were then 
in French ports. Nor was Congress, more than the exe- 
cutive, disposed to submit to the arrogant demands of 
France ; and, expecting war, unhesitatingly prepared for 
it — added considerablj to the navy, made large naval 
appropriations, and passed an act of non-intercourse. 
Minister War was averted by the overtures of Talleyrand 
to the^ ^^^ ^jjQ consequent appointment of a minister to the 
Repub- French Republic. Adams, at first, nominated M 'Mur- 
ray, resident minister at the Hague, on the suggestion of 
Talleyrand, but without consulting his cabinet, which 
widened the breach between him and the Federalists. 
This appointment was unpopular, and a great clamour was 
raised; but the President refused to withdraw the nomi- 
nation, and M'Murray was rejected by the Senate. Adams 
then, without withdrawing his appointment, nominated, 
conjointly with him, Chief- Justice Ellsworth and Patrick 



DISSATISFACTION OF THE FEDERALISTS. 337 

Henry; and the nomination, thus modified, was confirmed, cg- vi- 
Henry declined to serve, on account of age and infirmi- Ch. 3. 
ties, and General Davis, of North Carolina, was appointed a. d. 
in his place. 1798. 

The envoys were instructed to demand their passports ingtruo- 
and return to America, if negotiations for the settlement *^°°^^ 
of difficulties were not commenced within twenty days envoys, 
after their arrival at Paris. They were required to insist 
upon indemuification for spoliations and the repeal of the 
French decree for confiscating neutral vessels having Eng- 
lish merchandise on board. 

A portion of Adams's cabinet were disinclined to a re- Dissen- 
newal of diplomatic relations with France ; and the great tJ^f^abi- 
Icaders of the federal party were disposed to coincide in ^et. 
this opinion, from doubts which they entertained of the 
sincerity of the French government, and from a want of 
confidence in Talleyrand. But Adams, bent on preserving 
peace by any means, did not consult his cabinet, and has- 
tened the departure of the envoys, even after news had 
arrived of a change in the French Directory ; which slight 
on the cabinet consummated the breach in the federal 
party, subsequently broke it up, and threw power into 
the hands of the Republicans, in the ensuing elections. 

But, however annoying and disagreeable his course was 
to leaders of the party which had supported him, Adams tion of 
was determined to preserve peace, and also to act inde- pijenr* 
pendently of party dictation. He was President, and was 
resolved to exercise his prerogative — a resolution far from 
agreeable to strong party-men, especially of his own cabi- 
net, who, particularly Pickering and Wolcott, resolved to 
get rid of him at the close of his term of office, and sub- 
stitute a more reliable party-man — a man whom they 
could control — the great policy of all political parti- 
zans since that time, as shown in their disinclination to 
29 



338 DEATH OF WASHINGTON. 

bk. VI. elevate to office the strongest and best men of the coun- 
cil. 3. try. No man can ever hope to be elevated to the presi- 
A. D. dency by a party-vote, when he himself is stronger than 
1800. his party, or is any thing else than the mere organ and 
tool of a party, ready to adopt the most extreme party 
measures. 
Restora- Ncws being received (May, 1800), from the envoys to 
peace. France, of the probability of a favourable termination of 
difficulties, an act was passed discharging the officers and 
men of the additional regiments, with three months' pay. 
The envoys had been well received, and negotiations were 
carried on with a mutual desire to settle all differences 
in an honourable manner, and peace was soon fully re- 
stored. 
Events This protractcd negotiation with France, and those 
Adams's ^leasures of national defence which grew out of it, were 
adminis- the great events of Adams's administration, although acts 
of considerable importance were passed by Congress, and 
other events of interest, of a personal rather than of great 
national import, took place. 
Death of The year 1799 was memorable for the death of Wash- 
^^ton ii^g^o^^ (December 14th), which was a great loss to the 
federal party. All parties, however, sincerely mourned 
his death, and united to confer upon his memory every tes- 
timonial of respect. The funeral oration was pronounced 
by Henry Lee, and all that Congress or the nation could do 
to commemorate his great services and exalted character 
was done. The approaching anniversary of his birth 
(February 22d) was set apart for eulogies, orations, and 
other suitable manifestations of public grief throughout 
the Union ; and, so far as a nation can mourn for any 
one man, it mourned for him. 

In the course of the summer, the seat of government 
was removed to that new federal city, on the Potomac, 



ELECTION OP JEFFERSON. 339 

which is called by his name, although the public build- bk. vi. 
ings were scarcely completed, and the city was ill fur- Ch. 3. 
nished with accommodations, A. D. 

The most marked peculiarity of the administration of 1801. 
Adams was the virulence of party-feeling, which divided, Adams 
not merely the leading statesmen of the country, but even p^rty.'^ 
the cabinet of the President, and which induced him to 
act more independently of it than was in accordance with 
popular views, and finally led to the dismissal of Picker- 
ing and M 'Henry and the resignation of Wolcott, as well 
as to the total disorganization of the Federalists and the 
ascendency of the Republicans. The hostility against the 
President, even from his own party, was probably caused 
by his jealousy of Hamilton, his egotism and vanity, his 
eagerness to assume responsibility, and his independent 
course, especially in reference to France, which was viewed 
as decidedly anti-republican. 

In the presidential election of 1801 the republican Election 

^ . ofJeffer- 

pai-ty gained the ascendency, which it has since, under son. 
different names, retained. The Federalists, as a party, 
were completely defeated, partly by their own dissen- 
sions, and partly from the growth of more democratic 
ideas, or ideas supposed to be so. Adams and Pinckney 
were the candidates of the Federalists, and Jefferson and 
Aaron Burr the candidates of the Republicans, for Presi- 
dent and Vice-President. The two latter were elected ; 
but, as they both had an equal number of votes, the elec- 
tion passed into the House of Representatives, by whom 
Jefferson was chosen. 




^ 




Capture ofDerne. 



340 



CHAPTER IV. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JEFFERSON. 

Thomas Jefferson, the most famous of the early bk. vi. 



Presidents, next to Washington, commenced his adminis- ch. 4. 
tration at a fortunate time. The country was at peace ; ^ ^ 
the storm which threatened war had blown over; the 1801. 
treasury was well filled ; commerce was flourishing ; and 
the country had commenced a career of unbounded 
prosperity, its population already numbering over five 
millions. The federal party was decidedly overthrown, 
and democracy had commenced its reign. 

One of the first acts of the new President was to change Change 
the great ofiicers of state, and appoint those who were oi-^J" 
strong party-men — a course perhaps necessary, but dif- 
ferent from that pursued by his predecessors. James 
IMadison became Secretary of State ; Albert GalLtin, 
Secretary of the Treasury ; Robert Smith, Secretary of 
the Navy; and Levi Lincoln, Attorney -General. A 
change, still more uncommon, was also made in inferior 
offices throughout the country. 

When Congress assembled in December, it acted in Repeal 
the spirit of the President, and repealed many of the t^in*^"^ 
laws enacted by the Federalists — for the administration i^^^- 
had a large majority in both houses. The judiciary act 
was repealed, and also that imposing direct taxes, which 
were ever obnoxious to the people, especially the excise 
29 * (341) 



342 WAE WITH TRIPOLI. 

^g-^^'i- on distilled spirits. Jefferson regarded the public debt 

Ch. i. as a great evil, and recommended its speedy payment, as 

A. D. well as the curtailment of offices and salaries. 

1801 The first session of Congress was not marked by any 

J'^_ other measure of great importance, except authorizing 
the President to fit out a naval force against Tripoli, with 

^^ff which state the United States were forced to declare war. 

with 

Tripoli. The command of a squadron was given to Morris, and five 
frigates and one schooner were added to the ships already 
in the Mediterranean. The squadron, however, accom- 
plished nothing of consequence, except the blockade of 
Tripoli. The ships, in the course of the summer of 1803, 
were relieved by others under the command of Edward 
Preble, who hoisted his flag on board the Constitution, 
i^ew ex- One of the frigates sent to relieve the old squadron, the 
against Philadelphia, commanded by Captain Bainbridge, on her 
TripcJi. passage out, captured a Morocco cruiser of twenty- two 
guns, and retook an American brig, which caused the 
emperor of Morocco to disavow any order to commit hos- 
xoss of tilities. But a great misfortune befell Bainbridge on his 

tbe fri- ° . ° 

gate way to Tripoli to join Preble. His ship struck on a 
^^'l^'. sunken rock, and, while in a defenceless state, was at- 

aeiplna. ' ' ' 

tacked by a flotilla of Tripolitan gun-boats, and taken. 
The crew, with their commander, were carried to Tripoli 
and held as valuable prisoners, for whom a great ransom 
was demanded. 
3)ecatur gQon after, a bold exploit was performed by Lieutenant 
and Decatur, then commanding the Enterprise. This brig 
the fri- ^'^^ captured a small vessel, bound to Constantinople, with 
gate. a present of female slaves to the sultan. She was taken 
into service, called the Intrepid, and, being manned 
by volunteers from the Enterprise, stood into the har- 
bour of Tripoli, where the Philadelphia was refitting for 
sea. At midnight, she approached the Philadelphia, and, 



PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA. 343 

being supposed to be a trading vessel, having lost Lcr an- bk. yi. 
chors, was permitted to approach so near that the American Ch. 2. 
assailants, who had been heretofore concealed, were enabled ^_ p, 
to board the frigate sword in hand : they drove the bar- 1804. 
barians overboard, set fire to the ship, and, whilst she Feb. 26. 
was burning to the water's edge, sailed unharmed out 
of the harbour, under" a heavy fire from all the batteries. 
This gallant action of young Decatur contributed much 
to raise the character of the American navy. 

The blockade of the harbour of Tripoli was continued 
during the spring and summer, and, in the latter part of 
the season, was bombarded, but without much effect. Derne 

' ' taken by 

In the following spring, an attack was made by land Eaton, 
also, under Eaton, consul at Tunis, to co-operate with the 
naval forces. Eaton, with 400 men, adventurers from 
various countries, Tripolitan exiles, and Arab cavalry, 
marched through the desert from Egypt, countenanced 
by All Pasha; and, assisted by the Argus, the Hornet, 
and the Nautilus, American ships of war, he succeeded in 
taking Derne, the Tripolitan port and settlement nearest 
Egypt (April 27th, 1805), which brought the bashaw to 
terms, and led to a negotiation and peace with Tripoli, Jc^^d. 
much to the dissatisfaction of Eaton, who expected to 
reap some great advantage. 

But an event of more importance than a war with this 1803. 
piratical state occurred soon after it commenced. This The pur- 
was the purchase of Louisiana from France. Ex-Chan- cbase of 

'■ ^ Louisi- 

ccllor Livingston and Mr. Monroe were sent to Paris, as ana. 
special ministers, to negotiate that bargain. Napoleon 
wanted money more than an unprofitable settlement on 
the banks of the Mississippi. After the usual haggling 
between the French and American diplomatists, the French 
agreed to a cession of the whole territory for the comparative- 
ly unimportant sum of fifteen millions of dollars — deducting 



344 DUEL BETWEEN BURR AND HAMILTON. 

bk. tl little less than four millions of dollars as an indemnifioa- 
Ch. 4. tion to American merchants for the spoliations which had 
A. D. ^^®^ made. This arrangement was justly received with 
1803. great exultation by the President and his cabinet, and 
was ratified (October 20th, 1803) by the United States 
Senate. Some doubts and difficulties still remained re- 
specting boundaries, the French claiming more territory 
than Spain was willing to concede ; but these were allayed 
by the moderation and pacific policy of the President. 

After the peaceful acquisition of an immense territory 

for a comparatively trifling sum, no great political event 

of general interest occurred during the first administration 

of Jefierson. Party politics, however, ran high, and the 

federal leaders made a great outcry. 

Duel be- Unfortunately, this intense party animosity, never since 

Bmr^ equalled, led to the duel between Aaron Burr and Alex- 

and Ha- ander Hamilton, into which the latter was forced by his 

milton. , , ' "^ 

unprincipled opponent. Burr was eager for the blood of 
Hamilton ; and nothing short of his death could possibly 
appease him, in order that he might remove the great 
obstacle to his ascendency, or gratify the malice of dis- 
appointed ambition. This melancholy and disgraceful duel 
was fought on the 11th of July, where Hoboken now is, 
opposite New York, on the Jersey shore. " The parties,'' 
says a recent historian of the United States, " having ex- 
changed salutations, the seconds measured the distance 
of ten paces, loaded the pistols, made the other prelimi- 
nary arrangements, and placed the combatants. At the 
appointed signal. Burr took deliberate aim, and fired. 
The ball entered Hamilton's side, and, as he fell, his 
pistol too was unconsciously discharged. Burr approached 
him, apparently somewhat moved ; but, on the suggestion 
of his second, the surgeon and the barge-men already ap- 
proaching, he turned and hastened away, Van Ness, his 



DEATH OP HAMILTON. 345 

second, coolly covering him from their sight by opening bk. vi. 
an umbrella. The surgeon found Hamilton half sitting Ch. 4. 
on the ground and supported in the arms of his second, j^ i,_ 
The pallor of death was on his face. ^Doctor/ he said, 1803. 
' this is a mortal wound/ and, as if overcome by the ef- Death of 
fort of speaking, he swooned quite away. As he was JJ^™^^" 
carried across the river, the fresh breeze revived him. 
His own house being in the country, he was conveyed at 
once to the house of a friend, where he lingered for 
twenty-four hours in great agony, but preserving his com- 
posure and self-command to the last.'' 

Thus died Hamilton, the leader of the federal party. His 
and one of the greatest men that this country has yet ®^^^^* 
produced — the friend of Washington, the chief framer of 
the American Constitution, in the forty-eighth year of his 
age, and in the midst of usefulness and honour. New 
York never witnessed a more mournful spectacle than at 
his funeral, from Trinity Church, in which Gouverneur 
Morris pronounced his eulogy, before all that were learned 
and distinguished in the city. 

The public indignation against Burr was tremendous. Exeera- 
He was regarded as a wilful murderer, and was forced to ^^^^ 
flee. He embarked quietly for Georgia, lost all political 
influence, and gained an infamous reputation, which will 
ever cling to his name, even as the stigma of treason will 
for ever be attached to the memory of Arnold — two men 
who equally aimed at power even at the sacrifice of fame, 
friends, and country. 

The peaceful acquisition of Louisiana, the curtailment 1805 
of the public expenses, the prosperity of the country, and Rg^ico. 
the great talents and patriotism of Jefierson, secured his ^^^^ of 
re-election to the presidency and the greater predominance son. 
of his party. 

Meanwhile, Burr, disappointed in all his hopes of 



346 CONSPIRACY OP BURR. 

BK.VI. power, and blasted in reputation, abandoned himself to 

Ch. 4. desperate and dangerous schemes. In April, 1805, with 

A. D. several nominal objects in view, he departed for the West, 

1805. but with the probable intention of raising an expedition 

Burr's ^^T the couquost of Mexico, or of separating the South- 

conspi- -^yestern States from the Union and erecting out of them 

racy, o 

a monarchy, of which New Orleans was to be the capital. 
He however failed to gain over to his views any men of 
political influence, although he succeeded in entrapping 
Blennerhasset, an Irish gentleman of property, settled on 
an island in the Ohio, opposite Marietta. Rumour ac- 
cused him of something equally disgraceful in his in- 
trigues with the wife of this enthusiastic gentleman — 
for Burr was vain of his power over women, who were 
• too frequently victims of his arts. Burr had made great 
calculations on receiving the co-operation of General Wil- 
kinson, commander-in-chief of the army and governor of 
Louisiana, as well as of General Eaton, with Truxton, 
Preble, and Decatur, naval commanders. But these men 
were true to themselves and their country ; and Wilkin- 
son especially, detecting the dangerous schemes of Burr, 
did all in his power to defeat them, acquainting the Pre- 
sident with Burr's intentions, arresting his coadjutors, 
and putting New Orleans in a state of defence (1806). 
Even Burr himself was arrested in Kentucky, through 
the agency of Daviess, the district-attorney, and his trial 
commenced at Frankfort ; but, the principal witness relied 
upon by the government failing to appear. Burr had a 
triumphant release. Meanwhile the boats which Blen- 
nerhasset had prepared for the descent of the river were 
seized. Still, Burr persevered in attempting to win over 
the Western country, including the troops stationed at 
military posts on the Mississippi. He remained some 
time near Natchez, fearing to descend the river to New 



ARREST AND ACQUllTAL OF BURR. 347 

Orleans, on account of the measures of Wilkinson and the bk. vi. 
proclamation of the President, which called upon all per- Ch. 4. 
sons in authority to exert themselves to suppress an enter- ^^ ^^ 
prise which had for its object the invasion of the Spanish 1806. 
territories. The governor of the Mississippi Territory Arrest 
actually called out 400 militia for the purpose of arrest- of ^^^r 
ing Burr, and he was obliged to surrender. There was 
not, however, evidence sufficient to convict him, and he 
remained at the house of one of his sureties ; but, hearing 
that Wilkinson had sent some officers from New Orleans 
to arrest him, and fearing to fall into his hands, he fled. 
He was, however, captured and sent under guard to 
Washington, the seat of government of Mississippi Ter- 
ritory. The exaggerated accounts of Burr's force having 
become subjects of ridicule, and the alarm excited at New 
Orleans having subsided, there was a reaction of public opi- 
nion, and Burr found defenders in Congress. Neverthe- His trial 
less, he was tried for high treason at Richmond, before quittaL i 
Chief Justice Marshall, and was acquitted. The Federal- 
ists were inclined to make light of the whole affair; but 
the Democrats viewed it more seriously, especially the 
President, who watched the trial with great interest and 
ardently desired his conviction. Soon after the trial, 
Burr embarked for Europe, and lived a while at Paris in 
straitened circumstances and an object of suspicion to 
government. He returned to America just before the 1807. 
war with England, and resumed the practice of the law. 
But his political prospects were completely blasted, and 
his character was sullied by private vices. He lived to 
the age of eighty — deserted, lonely, and embarrassed. 

Meanwhile matters of greater national interest took 
place. Napoleon, at this time, was in the height of his 1805. 
victories and at war with England. In consequence, the 
Americans enjoyed the carrying trade of the world. Great 



848 BRITISH ORDERS IN COUNCIL. 

Bk. ti. fortunes were made by American merchants. Being at. 

Ch. 4. peace with both France and England, American vessels 

A. D. traded with these two great belligerent powers of Europe 

1806. as well as with their colonies. These mercantile advan- 

Engiish tages wcre regarded with jealousy by British merchants; 

decrees ^^^ British privatecrs-men and many naval officers com- 

against ^ •' 

rights of plained that there were no longer any prizes to take, 
neutrals ^j^^ British Courts of Admiraky lent an ear to these 
complaints, and passed decrees which declared that ves- 
sels engaged in carrying West India produce from the 
United States to Europe were legal prizes. The seizure 
and condemnation of several American vessels with valu- 
able Ciirgoes followed, which, of course, occasioned loud 
complaints in the United States. Public meetings were 
held to consider the state of affiiirs. 
ciium of These were not the only grounds of offence. England 
^^^°^ claimed the right to search American vessels for desert- 
for Bri- ers from its own service ; in consequence of which, great 
men^ annoyances were inflicted on merchant vessels, and Ame- 
rican sailors often forced into the British naval service. 
Congress retaliated by prohibiting the importation of many 
of the most important articles of British manufacture. 
British But graver causes of offence soon after occurred. Great 
council" ^^^^''*^^^) ^^th a view to cripple Napoleon, as well as to 
please her merchants, passed orders in Council (May, 
1806) which declared several European ports, under con- 
trol of the French, to be in a state of blockade; thus 
authorizing the capture of American vessels bound to 
them, and violating the law of nations, 
Berlin Napoleon, also, wishing to retaliate on the English, 
decrees, j-j^hor than to injure American commerce, devised a sys- 
tem by which he hoped to exclude English manufactures 
from the Continent, and thus cripple Great Britain in the 
most vital point, especially since by the battle of Trafalgar 



can f;orn- 
mcroii. 



EMBARGO ON AMERICAN VESSELS. 349 

England was the undisputed mistress of the ocean. He Bk.vi. 
accordingly issued his famous Berlin decrees (November, ch. 4. 
1806), by which Great Britain was not only declared to a. d. 
be in a state of blockade and ail intercourse suspended, 1807. 
but which forbade the introduction of any English goods 
into the Continent of Europe. 

The English retaliated by declaring the whole coast of 
Europe to be in a state of blockade, and prohibited neu- 
trals altogether from trade with the Continent. Napo- Milan 
Icon then issued his Milan decree, which conJSscatcd not 
only the vessels of neutrals which should touch at an 
English port, but such as should submit to be searched. 

Under these decrees, the capture of nearly all Ameri- Critical 
can property on the high seas was rendered almost certain, Amori- 
and thus a condition of things most disastrous to Ameri- 
can commerce was effected through the efforts of these 
two belligerent powers to embarrass each other in their 
strife for mastery. 

These were great evils ; and, during their continuance, 
American commerce between France and England as well 
as the rest of Europe was virtually suspended : for Ame- 
rican vessels might be seized by either French or Eng- 
lish, and rates of insurance rose to a ruinous height. 

The greatest alarm now prevailed in the United States. 
The Federalists clamoured for war, and large appropria- 
tions for military defences. The Democrats thought that 
there were not sufficient causes of war, and, in accordance 
with the suggestion of Jefferson, only asked for an increase 
of gun-boats, of no use, except in rivers. The American Tiie em. 
ships, however, were so much exposed to capture that ''^^^°' 
Congress, in 1807, decreed an embargo, or a prohibition 
to American ships to leave their ports. 

This efficient measure, although all parties had urged 
the government to adopt a vigorous course in order 
30 



350 POLICY OF Jefferson's administration. 

bk. Ti. to avenge the honour and protect the property of the 
Ch. 4. country, soon excited a general opposition, especially in 
A. D. the New England States ; and, not being able to enforce 

1807. the restrictions imposed by the embargo without military 
coercion, government prudently yielded and had recourse 
to another expedient, — that of non-intercourse. 

capture The general irritation was also increased by the un- 
°^*^® fortunate affair of the Chesapeake. This national vessel 
peake. was attacked by a British ship of superior force, the Leo- 
pard, and compelled to surrender, after several men had 
been killed and wounded. The outrage was inflicted on 
the ground that the American vessel sheltered deserters 
from the British navy, and four of the crew were carried 
off on that plea, three of whom were Americans. The 
British government, however, disavowed the act of the 
naval officer, although it offered no adequate reparation ; 
and, notwithstanding the disavowal, it contributed to swell 
the feeling of indignation against England throughout the 

1808. lan^i- This spirit of hostility was further increased by 
the refusal of England to revoke her obnoxious decrees, 
so unjust, and so injurious to American interests. The 
decrees of Napoleon also were equally injurious ; in con- 
sequence of which Congress at last was compelled, in 
March, 1809, after all negotiations had failed, wholly to 
interdict trade and intercourse with both France and 
England. 

jeffer- Such wcrc the events of greatest public interest during 
policy ^^^ administration of Jefferson, characterized on the whole 
by great wisdom and forbearance. Though hostile to 
Great Britain, he was averse to plunging the nation into 
war, which, however, could not be averted, under his suc- 
cessor, without a loss of national honour. 

It was Mr. Jefferson's policy to diminish the public 
debt, to restrict the army and navy, to repeal all direct 



POLICY OF Jefferson's administration. 351 

taxes, to reduce the tariff, to maintain friendly relations bk. vi. 
with the Indians, whose rights were respected, to add Ch. 4. 
new territories to the country, to extend the liberty of ^ j) 
the press, and to favour unbounded religious toleration. 1809. 
This policy, with some exceptions, has since continued to 
guide the course of the American government, and must 
continue to do so, in accordance with the popular wishes. 
Since the term of the first democratic President, the 
general principles of his party have been in the ascend- 
ant. Political contests, however, though sometimes ex- 
hibiting much warmth, have not been attended with that 
extreme degree of animosity which characterized the early 
contests between the two old parties. American citizens 
have come to believe, that a political antagonist is not 
necessarily an enemy to his country, and that no party 
whatever has the smallest chance of success, which does 
not in the main support the honest principles of republic- 
anism and the honour and interest of the whole country. 



CH_4MP:L4IN g 




CD 


CO 


S 


"2 • 


oc 


I— 1 


'D . « 


Li- 






> :z~ 




71 


a 


— i ■= 


^ 












= U V 


OC 






" K r 


l_LJ 


Q 


i 


111 


Y— 




a 


az- 


CC 


«i5 




-•esJri 






c c c 






pj 


RZZ 



352 



CHAPTER V. 

FIRST TERM OF MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

Thomas Jefferson retired from the presidency at a bk. vi. 
very critical period. " His policy of peace, — of commer- ch. 5. 
cial restrictions, moral philosophy, and dry docks,^' — was . j^ 
pursued until the nation was on the verge of internal and 1809. 
external war. The overbearing and unjust measures of EnRiish 
France and England respecting neutrals could no longer a«grea- 
be patiently endured. England still looked with jealousy policy of 
on the rising greatness of the American republic, and en- '^^^^^' 
deavoured to check it by low acts of diplomacy, by inva- 
ding international rights, by encouraging hostilities among 
the Indians, by retaining possession of military posts 
north-west of the Ohio, and, above all, by seizing Ameri- 
can vessels and impressing American sailors into her ser- 
vice. Still, Mr. Jefferson pursued a pacific and concilia- 
tory policy, and was ably supported by his Secretary of 
State, James Madison, who conducted the most delicate 
negotiations with masterly ability. 

When Mr. Jefferson retired, the eyes of the nation Madison 
were fixed on IMr. Madison, a.s the only man who could ^p^°^!'^^ 
bring existing difficulties to a successful termination; and deut. 
he was accordingly chosen President of the United States. 
He was inaugurated in March, 1809; and George Clin- 
ton, of New York, was chosen Vice-President. Robert niscaw- 
Smith, of Maryland, was appointed Secretary of State; 



30* 



(353) 



to 
1812 

Inter- 
diction 



354 DECLARATION OF WAR. 

ek. VI. Albert Gallatin, of Pennsylvania, was continued in the 
Ch. 5. office of Secretary of the Treasury ; William Eustis, of 
A. D. Massachusetts, was appointed Secretary of War; and 
1809 Paul Hamilton, of South Carolina, was called to the 
Na\-y Department. 

But the difficulties with foreign powers, which Iijki ori- 
ginated during Washington's administration and inei eased 
of com- during that of Jefferson, were no nearer a termination; 
"ter-'^ indeed, they were more embarrassing and further from 
course, adjustment. Great Britain still continued to usurp the 
same power on the water that Napoleon did on the land ; 
and the two great belligerents seemed to vie with each 
other in their disregard for the rio;hts of neutrals. As a 
last resource, Congress prohibited all commercial inter- 
course with both Great Britain and France ; still wishing, 
however, to preserve peace, the President was at the same 
time authorized to renew commercial intercourse so soon 
as these governments should repeal their obnoxious de- 
crees and orders. 
Warde- In 1811, France reluctantly revoked the Berlin and 
Glared jy^ilau dccrccs ; but the orders in Council were still con- 

against ' _ _ 

Great tinucd by the British government, contrary to all justice 
and the mutual interests of the two nations. At this 
period, England had impressed from the crews of Ameri- 
can merchant vessels, peacefully navigating the ocean, no 
less than six thousand seamen who claimed to be citizens 
of the United States, beside seizing and confiscating an 
immense amount of property. In view of these wrongs, 
Congress could hesitate no longer, and accordingly de- 
clared war against Great Britain (June 18th, 1812). 
Opposi- The declaration of war was received by different parties 
the war. with different feelings. The old Federalists strongly op- 
posed the war, and palliated the unjust course which Eng- 
land had pursued on the gi'ound of necessity. They 



INADEQUATE MILITARY PRErARATIONS. 355 

maintained that the obnoxious orders were continued out bk. vi. 
of fear of Napoleon rather than disregard to the Ameri- Ch. 5. 
cans, and that, as England was struggling for existence, a. d. 
it was ungenerous to take advantage of her critical situa- 1812. 
tion. Moreover, they declared the nation unprepared for 
war, and predicted calamities which would more than 
balance the advantages to be gained. Nor did they be- 
lieve that there was a sujfficient cause of hostilities, or 
that the national honour was seriously compromised. 
Among the most violent opposers of the war were the 
clergy, the lawyers, and especially the merchants, of New 
England, who viewed with regret the withdrawal of their 
commerce from the ocean. 

But, with a great majority of the nation, the war was Popuia- 
popular. The preservation of national honour was re- JJj^J^^r. 
garded of more value than that of any material interests. 
Nor had hostility to England sufficiently abated since the 
Revolution, to allow the people to do justice to the course 
the English government felt constrained to pursue, while 
opposing a barrier to the career of Napoleon. 

There can be no doubt that the nation was not well Condi- 
prepared for a contest with England. Mr. Madison had Jj^^^ °^ 
indulged the hope that all difficulties would be settled, United 
and Congress itself was averse to making those large ap- 
propriations necessary to conduct a war with success. 
The navy was insignificant. The army was small and 
not well organized. The treasury was empty, and money 
could only be raised by loans. Our geographical position 
was unfavourable. On the one side was Canada, well 
furnished with troops and all the munitions of war. On 
the north-west and south-west were lawless savages, un- 
friendly to the American cause, and embittered by Eng- 
lish arts. On the south was Florida, occupied by Spanish 
troops. The old revolutionary generals were dead or 



356 FORCES ox TTTE FRONTIERS. 

r>K. TT. superannuated. The cabinet-ministers were unacquainted 
cii. 5. with military afiuirs. The community and Congress were 
^ p divided as to the necessity of the war itself. 
1812. Such was the condition of the country when the war 
Ameri- '^^ declared. Henry Dearborn, who had been Secretary 
can gen- of "War during Jeffersou's administration, was appointed 
senior Major-General ; under him were 31ajor-Generals 
James Wilkinson, of 3Iaryland, Wade Hampton, of South 
Carolina, William Hull, governor of ^Michigan Temtory, 
and Thomas Pinckuey, of South Carolina. 
Hull on In anticipation of hostilities, a large force was placed 
th^tron- y^^^^j. ^|jg command of General Hull, in order that he 
might cut off all communication between the Northwest- 
ern Indians and the British posts in the Canadas. By 
some remissness in the War Department, the first intelli- 
gence of the declaration of war was received in Canada by 
the British themselves, before it was known on the fron- 
Tx^ssof tier-posts. Consequently, Mackinaw, on the island of 
niacki- jMichilimackinac, at the junction of Lakes Huron and 
'^^'•'' Michig-an, on the 17th of July, ISI'2. was surprised by 
the enemy and taken without resistance. This important 
post, the depot of the fur-trade and the key of the North- 
west, was thus unfortunately lost at the very outset, 
null's Hull meanwhile set out, with a force of volunteers and 
o^-c^'a° ^^iliti'^? ^I'o^^ Detroit, his seat of government, to inyade 
da: his Canada, and issued pompous proclamations. But he met 
audsur- with nothing but a series of disasters, being opposed by 
render, general Brock, an able and experienced commander. 
His stores, despatches, and baggage were captured in a 
boat. A detachment of his forces was cut to pieces by 
Tecumseh, the Indian warrior. His army was discou- 
raged by finding the savages more hostile than was ex- 
pected. His flanks were in danger of an attack by the 
British, and his rear was not open to supplies. Under 



UNSUCCESSFUL INVASION OF CANADA. 357 

tbesc circumstances, he commenced a retreat (August 7tli), cs- vi- 
iguomiuiouhly recrossed into Michigan, and (August 15th) Ch. 6. 
surrendered, with his whole army, at Detroit, to General a. d. 
Brock, without striking a blow, or performing one gallant 1812. 
action, or even holding a council of war. 

Thus was the war opened by the most disgraceful sur- TdiU of 
render of an American army to an inferior force, without 
exhibiting either courage or skill. The army, however, 
as well as the country, was indignant in view of this use- 
less surrender, and Hull was tried by a court-martial 
for cowardice, convicted, and sentenced to be shot ; but, 
being recommended to mercy, he was pardoned by the 
President, although dismissed from the service. 

Before the surrender of Hull, a project had been laid Mcditar 
before the "War Department for the capture of Halifax, tuW of 
the principal naval depot of the enemy ; but the project ^1'^*^^^- 
was not then deemed feasible by Mr. Eustis, and it was 
accordingly abandoned, to be subsequently resumed. 

The invasion of Canada, at this period, still occupied Forces 
the attention of the American commander-in-chief, for f*"^*^.*^ 

' invasion 

which purpose 18,000 men were collected in various places of Cuna- 
on the frontier. These were distributed in three divisions : ^'^' 
the first, under General Harrison, near the head of Lake 
Erie ; a second, under General Van Rensselaer, at Lewis- 
town, on Niagara river ; and a third, under General Dear- 
born, in the vicinity of Plattsburg. 

The division under Van Rensselaer, composed equally Failure 
of rcfrulars and militia, crossed the river, to attack the of^''"^- 

, ° ' , ' _ selaor. 

British on Queenstown Heights. The enterprise was gal- 
lantly conducted by the general, but was not properly 
sustained by the army, only a part of whom were willing 
to embark. Consequently, the assault was unsuccessful, 
although General Brock was killed. Of 1100 men who 
crossed the river, nearly all were killed, wounded, or 



858 NAVAL SUCCESSES. 

bk. VI. taken prisoners. The battle was lost for want of disci- 
Ch. 5. pline. The troops would not obey the orders of the 
A. D. general — and no courage can atone for disobedience. 
1812. The unlucky and not very creditable campaign of 1812 
General ^as closed by a feeble attempt of General Dearborn to 
Dear- jnyade Canada. He commanded full 6000 men, and was 

Dorn. ^ ' 

well provided with money and the munitions of war ; but 
after a miserable skirmish he relinquished the enterprise 
and retired to winter-quarters. All that can be said in 
his justification is, that his militia refused to cross the line, 
regarding themselves as called out to resist invasion, not 
to carry on offensive operations in the enemy's country. 

The first year of the war would have ended in a total 
eclipse of glory and honour, had it not been for some 
brilliant naval encounters. The inf mt navy accomplished 
wonders, and partially redeemed the misfortunes of the 
army. 
Capture Qn the 19th of August, three days after the surrender 
Guer- of Hull at Detroit, the frigate Constitution, commanded 
rroiir** by Captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere, 
with the loss of only seven killed and seven wounded — 
one of the most brilliant naval exploits on record. On 
the 17th of October, the English brig Frolic surrendered 
to the American sloop of war Wasp, commanded by Cap- 
tain eTones. The loss of the Frolic was thirty killed and 
^i^fty wounded ; that of the Wasp was five killed and five 
wounded. But both these vessels were subsequently re- 
captured by a British seventy-four. 
Capture Thesc succcsscs wcrc followed by others scarcely less 
of the trilliant. On the 25th of October, Captain Decatur, of 

Macedo- ^ ^ r j 

nianand the frigate United States, captured the Macedonian, a fri- 
gate of the largest class, with the loss only of seven killed 
and five wounded, while the Macedonian lost thirty-six 
killed and sixty-eight wounded. On the 29th of December, 



EPFECTS OF THE NAV^VX SUCCESSES. 359 

the Constitution, then commanded by Commodore Bain- br. vr. 
bridge, achieved a second victory, off San Salvador, by Ch. 5. 
capturing the British frigate Java, in a short but se- a. d. 
vere action. Besides her crew of four hundred men, the 1812. 
Java had on board one hundred men designed for the 
British service in the East Indies. Her commander, 
Captain Lambert, was mortally wounded, and sixty of her 
men were killed and one hundred and twenty wounded. 
The Constitution had nine killed and twenty-five wound- 
ed. The prize, however, was a complete wreck, and could 
not be brought into port. 

These unexpected successes on the ocean raised the Capture 
spirits of the Americans, so much mortified by the dis- ng^ vc's- 
asters and disgrace which had accompanied the operations ^-'^s. 
of the army. Before the meeting of Congress, in Novem- 
ber, nearly two hundred and fifty English vessels were 
captured, upwards of fifty of which were armed, carrying 
more than six hundred guns. 

Throughout the country, confidence was inspired, and Enthu- 
a general enthusiasm prevailed. Numerous volunteer the^eo- 
corps were formed, and tendered their services to the p^^- 
government. This patriotic spirit manifested itself espe- 
cially in the alacrity displayed by the people in "Western 
Pennsylvania, Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee. 
Even females, of every condition and age, voluntarily en- 
gaged in the work of preparing clothing and knapsacks 
for their relations and friends. 

The President, in his message to Congress, which had ^ressnge 
reassembled (November 2d) for a short session, did not gre.-s.*^* 
attempt to conceal the misfortunes of the army on the 
Canadian frontier, and which, he did not hesitate to say, 
had partly resulted from the want of proper spirit and 
patriotism in the governors of Massachusetts and Con- 
necticut, who were opposed to the war. 



360 RE-ELECTION OF MADISON. 

bk. VI. Congress ordered the construction of four ships of the 
Ch. 5. line, six frigates, and six sloops of war, and passed an act 
A J) for a loan of sixteen millions of dollars, and also for the 

1812. issue of five millions of treasury notes. This sum, in- 
Suppiies eluding the loan of eleven millions, authorized on the 
voted 24th of March, and five millions of treasury notes, on 
gress. the 30th of June, made the appropriations for the prose- 
cution of the war amount altogether to thirty-seven mil- 
lions of dollars in one year. 

Distin- About this time, several men, since distinguished in 
^cl^^ the congressional annals of the country, entered the na- 
bers of tioual legislature. Among these was Henry Clay, then 
gress. Speaker of the House, Daniel Webster, who represented 
a district in New Hampshire, Jeremiah Mason, Charles 
J. Ingersoll, John Forsyth, Richard Stockton, John W. 
Eppes, Timothy Pickering, and Timothy Pitkin. Rufus 
King was then the leader of the minority, or the anti- 
war party, in the Senate. 
Presi- The presidential contest was animated in the Eastern 

efwtiou. States; but only a slight opposition was made to Mr. 
Madison in the South and West, and he was re-elected 
by a large majority. Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, 
was elected Vice-President, over George Clinton. During 
the winter, some changes took place in the cabinet. Wil- 
liam Jones, of Pennsylvania, was appointed Secretary of 
the Navy, in the place of Hamilton ; and General Arm- 
strong, late minister to France, Secretary of War, instead 
of Dr. Eustis. 

1813. Soon after Madison was inaugurated a second time, 
Russia ^^ssia, which had sufiered from the interruption of Ame- 
rican commerce, ofiered her mediation between the belli- 



diation. gerent parties. The President accepted the ofi'er, and 
appointed John Quincy Adams, Albert Gallatin, and 
James A. Bayard, envoys extraordinary and ministers 



ENGLAND DECLINES RUSSIAN MEDIATION. 861 

plenipotentiary, to conclude a treaty of peace, under the bk. vi. 

auspices of the Russian Emperor Alexander ; but Great Ch. 5. 

Britain, unwilling to abandon her pretensions, declined a. d. 

the proffered mediation. The United States had no other 1813. 
course than to prosecute the war, which will be considered 
in the next chapter. 



31 



tt^^^H 1 




Battle of Lake Erie. 



CHAPTER VI. 

SECOND TERM OF MADISON^S ADMINISTRATION. 

The campaign of 1813 opened with considerable mill- bk. vr. 
tary preparations on the part of the Americans. Briga- ch. 6. 
dier-General William Henry Harrison, of the Ohio militia, ^ ^ 
who had long been the popular governor of the North- 1813. 
western Territories, was placed at the head of a large opening 
body of volunteers and militia, from Kentucky, Ohio, of the 
Pennsylvania, and Virginia. A more gallant army never paign of 
marched with higher hopes than the 10,000 men under i^^^- 
Harrison and Wilkinson, to recover what had been lost 
by Hull, and even to conquer Canada. General Harri- 
son commanded the right wing, and General Winchester, 
the second in command, the left. The latter general, 
while Harrison was lying at Sandusky, detached Colonels 
Lewis and Allen from the left wing, and sent them to 
protect the village of Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, 
from the Indians and Canadians. They fell in with a 
party of the enemy, and obtained complete success. The 
advantage which was thus gained inspired the troops 
under Winchester to join Lewis and share his triumphs, 
and the general yielded to their desires. He joined Lewis 
on the 13th of January, with the intention of preserving 
the position which had been gained on the Raisin. So 
soon as Harrison heard of the success at Frenchtown, he 
also set forward to effect a general junction of the army, 

(363) 



364 SIEGE OP FORT MEIGS. 

^^- ^^- but, it being so early in the season, he was prevented by 
Ch- 6. the difficulties of the march from accomplishing his object. 
A. D. Before he could join Winchester, the latter was attacked 
1813. (January 22d) by a large force of British and Indians, 
Defeat and Completely routed. General Winchester himself and 
Chester. Colouel Lcwis Were taken prisoners. Nor was this the 
greatest calamity. Major Madison, who, with 500 men, 
had succeeded in retaining his position, was induced, 
through the influence of Winchester, to surrender to 
Colonel Proctor, who had promised to treat him and his 
troops with the honourable consideration due to captives. 
Murder But the savages under Proctor, exasperated at the loss of 
of Ken- their warriors, demanded vengeance, and he basely sur- 
Boidiers. rendered 500 prisoners, comprising men from the best 
families of Kentucky, into their hands. The next day, 
the whole of them were ruthlessly murdered — one of 
the greatest outrages in the annals of modern warfare ; 
and Proctor, who permitted the slaughter, instead of be- 
ing cashiered and disgraced, was made brigadier-general. 
Harri- General Harrison, after this disaster, retreated to his 
post on the Miami, and proceeded to fortify Fort Meigs, 
all further advance upon the enemy's territory being 
necessarily abandoned. Here he successfully withstood 
two sieges, from a vastly superior force under Proctor and 
Tecumseh, and the enemy was compelled to retire. On 
the 5th of May, General Clay, with 1200 Kentucky mi- 
litia, arrived in the vicinity of Fort Meigs, and was or- 
dered to attack the British redoubts, on one side of the 
river, in concert with a sortie from the fort, headed by 
Colonel Miller. The attack was successful ; but, instead 
of returning to the fort, as he was ordered, General Clay 
pursued the retreating Indians, until he himself, in re- 
turn, was surrounded and completely defeated. Only a 
small part of his force reached the fort in safety. Thus 



son's 
sue- 



Erie. 



VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE BY PERRY. 365 

ensued another reverse in consequence of disobedience of bk. vi. 
orders, and the North-west was still left open to British Ch. 6. 
thraldom and depredation. A. D. 

The campaign would have terminated before Harrison 1813. 
could have matured his preparations to recover what 
Hull had lost, had not the destruction of the British fleet 
on Lake Erie, by Commodore Perry, opened the way to 
the capture of Proctor on the Thames, and the complete 
relief of the entire West from the enemy. 

This event, one of the most signal and fortunate during Perry's 
the war, took place on the tenth of September. The onLake 
American squadron consisted of nine vessels, carrying 
fifty -four guns ; the British, of six vessels and sixty-three 
guns. The battle began at eleven o'clock in the morn- 
ing, and, at first, was unfavourable to the Americans, the 
flag-ship of Perry, the Lawrence, being disabled by the 
fire of two ships of equal size with which she contended, 
and from which she could not escape on account of the 
lightness of the wind. The gallant commodore, instead 
of surrendering, left his ship, in an open boat, amid 
a heavy and destructive fire, and passed unhurt to the 
Niagara. The wind then rising, Perry succeeded in 
bringing the whole squadron into action ; and, in three 
hours, his victory was complete. The loss of the Ame- 
ricans was twenty-seven killed and ninety-six wounded, 
while the British loss was much greater. The prisoners 
amounted to 600, exceeding the whole number of Ame- 
ricans engaged in the action. 

This great victory of Perry over Barclay extinguished 
the power of the British on the Lakes, and opened a 
passage to the territory which had been surrendered by 
Hull. General Harrison, assisted by the governors of 
Kentucky and Ohio, succeeded in collecting an army of 
7000 men, on the southern shore of Lake Erie, and which, 
31* 



306 RETIREMENT OF GENERAL HARRISON. 

^^- ^'i- embarking on Perry's fleet, reached Maiden the 27th of 
Ch. 6. September. This great force filled General Proctor with 
A. D, consternation, and he took to flight, after destroying every 
1813. thing which came in his way. General Harrison pursued 
Harri- ^ud ovcrtook the retreating enemy, the 5th of October, on 
eon's vio ^j^^ pjygj, Thames, about eighty miles from Detroit. Here 

tones. , ' o ^ 

Proctor, with Tecumseh, posted himself, and prepared for 
the attack, when flight was no longer possible. Both ar- 
mies engaged with determined courage, and the Americans 
gained the day. Tecumseh, the most celebrated Indian 
warrior that ever raised his arm against the white men, 
was killed, and, on his death, the Indians fled ; and the 
English, with the exception of Proctor, who, with 200 
dragoons, succeeded in escaping, laid down their arms. 
Had the forces been more equal, the victory would have 
been more glorious. Its result, however, was great, for 
the north-western country was regained, and the way pre- 
pared for a more efi'ectual invasion of Canada, 
iiarri- Upou this dccisivo battle. General Harrison embarked 
son re- ^^^ Buff"alo, aftcr discharojins; a ereat part of the volun- 

Bigns his ' o o a r 

oommifl tcors who had so honourably served, and leaving Colonel 

Cass, with a detachment, at Detroit. Soon after, while 

reposing on his laurels at home, in Ohio, he resigned his 

commission, in consequence of a disagreement with the 

executive, which, against his expectation, was received. 

His mi- The victory of Perry on the water and of Harrison on 

litary ^]^q \^^^ g^ye occasiou for great public rejoicings, in all 

tiou. the chief cities of the land. Harrison was the first to 

turn the tide of adverse events, for which he obtained the 

nation's gratitude, and finally the highest honour in its 

power to bestow. He, however, was fortunate, rather 

than great — for his successful campaign will bear no 

comparison, in military genius, with that which achieved 

the conquest of Mexico under Scott and Taylor. 



BRITISH FLEETS ON THE AMERICAN COAST. 367 

While Harrison was recovering the ground lost by bk. vi. 
Hull, a series of disasters occurred on the Atlantic sea- Ch. 6. 
board. England^ engaged in her gigantic struggle with a. d. 
Napoleon, had no leisure to bestow much attention upon 1813. 
the contest in America, comparatively of trifling import- British 
ance; nor could she spare either ti*oops or naval armar ^^'*- 
ments. British naval forces, especially, did not appear 
on the American coast in any formidable numbers, until 
after the war had been declared for more than a year. 
But early in 1813, Admiral Warren, with two ships of 
the line, four frigates, and several smaller vessels, took 
possession of Hampton roads. Soon after, in March, De- 
laware Bay was occupied by a considerable force ; and, 
indeed, the whole coast was pretty effectually blockaded 
by British fleets, consisting of six seventy-four-gun ships, 
thirteen frigates, and eighteen sloops of war. The Ame- Ameri- 
ricans had no armaments capable of withstanding this ^^ 
great naval force, although several gallant actions had 
been performed by single ships. The American priva- 
teers had seized hundreds of British merchant vessels. 
The Peacock had surrendered to the Hornet, commanded 
by Captain Lawrence, while the President, under Rodgers, 
the Congress, under Smith, and the Essex, under Porter, 
had carried terror into every sea. 

The arrival of British fleets on the American waters Depre- 
was attended with most disgraceful depredations. The ^\h^ 
English acted altogether like unlicensed buccaneers, British- 
wherever they found themselves unchecked by opposing 
forces. They burned hamlets, villages, and towns, along 
the coast. They destroyed mills, bridges, foundries, sta- 
bles, and cottages. They seized pleasure boats, oyster 
smacks, and market shallops. All these ravages, whose 
only efiect was to irritate, were encouraged by Admiral 
Cockbum, afterwards a favourite of the prince regent. 



368 CAPTURE OP KINGSTON. 

bk. vi. But the British soon attempted something more serious 
Oh. 6. than the destruction of barns and fishing boats. On the 
j^ jy 22d of June, Admirals Warren and CockburUj with the 
1813. seamen and marines of their fleets, joined by two or three 
Attackof thousand infantry, under Sir Sidney Beckworth, made an 
Craney attack ou Craucy Island, near Norfolk, but were severely 
and effectually repulsed. This repulse was revenged by 
an attack on Hampton, a small fishing town in Hamp- 
ton roads, which was more successful, and gave occasion 
to wanton barbarities that would have disgraced savages. 
Silver was plundered from communion tables. Women 
were outraged by indignities which are worse than death. 
The churches were desecrated. The sick were murdered 
in bed. Stores and shops were plundered. Slaves were 
stolen, and either sold in the West India markets, or in- 
corporated with the troops. These outrages, however, 
produced such general disgust, that the opposition to the 
war was abated, and Congress was urged to more decisive 
measures. Direct taxes were imposed, and heavy duties 
laid on refined sugar, sales at auction, retailers' licenses, 
stamps, carriages, and sundry other articles. But we 
return to military operations in Canada. 
General GrGneral Armstrong, the Secretary of War, had designed 
Pike at- to attack Canada at Kingston, on Lake Ontario, where the 
j^g. English naval and land forces were concentrated. Com- 
Bton. modore Chauncey commanded the lake, and had succeeded 
in confining the British naval forces in the harbour of 
Kingston. Greneral Pike was the officer selected to make 
the attack. On the 25th of April, his forces, amounting 
to 1600 men, were transported by Chauncey's fleet to- 
wards Kingston, and landed about three miles from York, 
or Toronto, as it is since called, the provincial capital. 
The Americans successfully accomplished the disembark- 
ation, and succeeded in captui'ing the place ; although, by 



WILKINSON TAKES THE COMMAND. 

the explosion of a powder-magazine, General Pike was bk. ti. 
unfortunately killed. After stripping York of the booty, Ch. 6. 
General Dearborn re-embarked, and attacked and carried j^ p^ 
Fort George. This exploit consumed a month, and was 1813. 
an insignificant object compared with an attack on Kings- 
ton, which, with the great forces of the Americans at the 
time, might have been captured. 

The attack on York left Sacked s Harbour in a com- Amerf- 
paratively defenceless state, and, in the absence of the verses. 
troops, it was attacked by a British force of about 1000 
men, while Fort George was carried by the Americans. 
The British, however, were repuked, and the place re- 
mained in the hands of the Americans. But this repulse 
was the last American success in 1813 on Lake Ontario 
or the St. Lawrence. Indecisive and unfortunate results 
still seemed to attend the American arms in that quarter. 
The war was carried on at enormous expense, and more 
money was expended for ship-building than would have 
been required to transport large armies to Halifax. The 
American troops remained inactive most of the time in 
camp, decimated by disease and unwholesome food ; and 
prices for provisions were so high, that, at one time, flour 
cost $100 a barrel. The commander-in-chief. General 
Dearborn, was incapacitated, by age and infirmities, for 
his duties; but he resigned at last, and was succeeded by 
General Wilkinson. 

But he did not prove a more eflicient commander, and Suooess- 
a succession of reverses sullied the glory of the American Engu*sh! 
arms. At Forty Mile Creek, on the od of June, the Ame- 
ricans were beaten in an action, and Generals Chandler 
and Winder were taken prisoners. Three weeks later. 
Colonel Boerstler, with 600 men, w^as attacked by a 
body of English and Indians, and compelled to surrender 
at discretion. Nor was any oficnsive operation made 



rence. 



370 DESCENT OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. 

bk. VI. after Boerstler's capture, while the enemy was as active 
Ch. 6. as our forces were sluggish. 

^_ D^ On the 20th of August, General Wilkinson arrived at 
1813. Sackett's Harbour, with instructions to capture Kingston. 
Ai-jn. His forces were deemed ample, having the control, in va- 
strong i-ioug gtations, of 11,000 men. On the 5th of September, 
quarters the Secretary of War himself arrived at the head-quarters 
of Wilkinson, to concert measures for the conquest of 
Canada. But his plan of attacking Kingston was now 
abandoned, and it was resolved to proceed to Montreal. 
Two columns were accordingly concentrated at Grenadier 
Island and Plattsburg, respectively commanded by Gene- 
rals Wilkinson and Hampton, for the invasion of Canada. 
Descent rpj^^ f^^j^^Qj. lingered at Sackett's Harbour until the latter 
St. Law- end of October, and thus gave the enemy time to fortify 
their posts on the river; and a fortnight more was con- 
sumed .before his forces were fairly embarked, in 300 
boats, upon the St. Lawrence. The descent was calami- 
tous, in consequence of shoals, rapids, fogs, storms, bad 
pilots, and the enemy's guns. Moreover, from jealousy 
between Wilkinson and Hampton, there was no co-opera- 
tion ; and when Wilkinson, after many perils, arrived at 
St. Regis, where Hampton had been ordered to meet 
him, he received a communication from Hampton stating 
that, in consequence of the sickly state of his troops and 
the want of provisions, he had fallen back to Plattsburg. 
This conduct of Hampton was fatal to success, and the 
whole expedition was necessarily abandoned. 

Thus terminated the campaign of 1813, in the North, 
disastrously and ignominiously, for want of concert and 
ability among the great leaders of the enterprise. 

In the South, however, the successes of General Jack- 
son somewhat atoned for misfortunes at the North. The 
campaign was carried on mainly by volunteers and militia 



GENERAL JACKSON IN THE SOUTH. 371 

from Georgia, Tennessee and the Territory of Mississippi, bk. vi. 
against the Indian foes, instigated and armed by the Eng- ch. 6. 
lish and Spaniards. Of these, the Creeks, Choctaws, j^ p^ 
and Seminoles, were the most noted and uncompromising 1813. 
warriors. The chief agent of England, in inflaming In- 
dian animosities, was Tecumseh, who performed a journey 
from North to South, in order to enlist the various tribes 
in one desperate league against those who occupied their 
ancient hunting grounds, and to secure the long lost 
rights of Indian freedom. 

On the 13th of August, 1813, at Fort Mimms, on the Massar 
Alabama river, not far from Mobile, occurred one of those ^^ f* 
horrible massacres which are consequent upon the atroci- MimmB. 
ties of Indian warfare. The garrison in this place, com- 
manded by Major Beasley, from an overweening self-con- 
fidence, was surprised by a body of 800 savages, who had 
been furnished with arms by the British, and 160 people 
were barbarously murdered, with every indignity and 
cruelty that Indian ingenuity could suggest. The news 
of this massacre spread consternation throughout that 
part of the country, and the great body of the settlers, 
being without any means of defence, fled to Mobile, which 
had been seized by General Wilkinson in the spring. 

The massacre at Fort Mimms called for prompt and Defeat 
vigorous measures, and Georgia, Tennessee, North and °^ ^^'^ 
South Carolina, acted with great decision. A force of 
3500 men was placed at the disposal of Andrew Jackson, 
who detached, on the 3d of November, General Coffee, 
with a brigade of 900 men, and a squadron of cavalry 
and mounted riflemen, under Colonels Allcorn and Can- 
non, to the Tallushatchee towns, where they routed the 
Creeks with such slaughter, that scarcely any escaped. 
This blow was followed by a succession of conflicts with 
other Indian bands, in a campaign of six months, which 



372 GENERAL PINCKNEY. 

bk. yi. so prostrated their power, that they at last took refuge in 
Ch. 6. entrenchments, and were finally overthrown, in March, 
A. D. 1814, by the storming of their fortress, by General Jack- 
1813. son himself, at the junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa 
Ruin rivers. 

cf the After completing the destruction of the Creeks, Gene- 
ral Jackson returned to Tennessee in triumph, and was 
made a brigadier-general, and major-general by brevet, in 
the regular army. 
General General Jackson was greatly aided in the subjection of 
ney. the Crecks by General Pinckney, of South Carolina, one 
of the most eminent statesmen and accomplished gentle- 
men of the country. He served as a captain in the Re- 
volutionary war, was selected by Washington to succeed 
John Adams as minister to London, in 1794, negotiated 
a treaty with Spain, in 1795, afterwards was a prominent 
member of Congress, governor of South Carolina, and 
major-general of the regular army. He first met Jackson 
in the wilds of Alabama, at an old French fort, to dictate 
terms to a conquered people. 
Treaty By the treaty which Jackson imposed, the Creeks 
i*^^^^ yielded up a large part of their country to the United 
States, and agreed to hold no intercourse with either 
British or Spanish garrisons. The tribe was ruined — a 
fact which we should deplore, had any tribe of North 
American Indians, thus far, since their early contact with 
Europeans, shown themselves capable of civilization. 
That they are a doomed race, learning few of the arts and 
all the vices of the white man, prefemng their forests 
to all other pleasures, and hating all improvements, is one 
of the most mysterious as well aa one of the best attested 
facts of all history. 

The tide of naval triumphs, thua far nearly uninter- 
rupted, was arrested by the loss of the frigate Chesapeake?, 



LOSS OF THE CHESAPEAKE. 373 

(June 1st, 1813,) in Boston harbour. The Chesapeake Bk.vi. 
was commanded by Captain Lawrence, a gallant and he- ch. o. 
roic commander, and had been challenged by Captain a. d. 
Brooke, of the Shannon, one of the most efficiently armed 1813. 
ships in the British navy. The Chesapeake was chiefly Loss of 
manned by new recruits, whose officers were disabled by *^pfj^^ 
sickness. Lawrence, unfortunately, without considering 
the disadvantages under which he laboured, accepted the 
challenge, and put to sea, much against the inclination of 
his men. The two ships were soon in conflict, and a 
desperate fight commenced, in which, owing in part to 
some mishap, the Chesapeake was early disabled, boarded 
by the British, and taken, when nearly all the officers 
were either killed or wounded. The gallant Lawrence, 
though wounded, fought with desperation, and his me- 
morable words, " Don't give up the ship," have become 

the motto in the American navy. He was killed soon Death of 

Law- 
after, and his ship was obliged to strike to the victorious renco. 

enemy, whose loss also was very considerable. The vic- 
tory caused much exultation among the British, as they 
had heretofore in this contest been remarkably unfortu- 
nate in naval combats. Another triumph soon followed, 
to solace them still further. The American sloop Argus, 
on the 14th of August, surrendered, after a severe conflict 
and the loss of Captain Allen, to the Pelican, a vessel of 
superior force. But this loss was compensated, soon after, ^^^^^J® 
on the first of September, by the capture of the British Boxer. ; 
brig Boxer by the schooner Enterprise; and also, the 
capture of the schooner Highflyer by the President. 
Several valuable prizes were also taken, about this 
time, by American privateers, which, like the national 
ships, maintained the honour of the American marine, 
notwithstanding the large naval force then employed by 
England. 
32 



374 NEW MILITARY PREPARATIONS. 

bk. Yi. The year 1813 closed without any other signal and 
Ch. 6. important actions, either on the land or water. At this 
A. D. period, opposition to the war, in New England, was more 

1813. fierce than at any preceding time; and, in Congress, Mr. 

Opposi- "Webster uttered the sentiments of his party with tremen- 

tion to (Jous power, opposed, however, by the scarcely less splen- 
did and more popular eloquence of Calhoun, — both of 
whom made themselves conspicuous in the debates con- ' 
nected with the war, and began to occupy a commanding 
position in the national councils, which position neither 
was destined afterwards to lose. 

Preparar T^e sccond scssion of the war-Congress began Decem- 

tions for . , , . . . . xt • 

another bcT 5th, 1813, With disappointed expectations. Harri- 
*'^™' son's successes and Jackson's victories over the Indians 

paign. 

did not compensate for the failure of the expedition against 
Canada. Great Britain had rejected the proffered media- 
tion of Russia, and was making preparations for more ex- 
tended hostilities, while a third of the country was still 
averse to the war. Under these circumstances. President 
Madison recommended a most stringent embargo and non- 
intercourse law, which was passed by Congress. It was, 
however, repealed a few months afterwards (April, 1814). 
A loan of twenty-five millions of dollars was authorized, 
and laws were passed for the augmentation of the army 
and navy. 

We should not, perhaps, close this chapter without ad- 
verting to the profound sensation occasioned both in Eu- 
rope and America, by the very decided success which 
crowned the arms of the United States in her naval 
combats with Great Britain. The latter nation seemed 
to have entirely lost sight of that special aptitude for all 
exploits, whether peaceful or warlike, connected with life 
upon the ocean, which distinguished the Americans, alike 
in their colonial condition and in the war which secured 



THE AMERICAN NAVY. 375 

their independence. The intervening time from the Re- bk. vi. 
volution to the war of 1812, had been marked almost Ch.7. 
continuously by a series of naval triumphs on the part of a. D. 
Great Britain, which nearly annihilated the squadrons of 1813. 
the other European powers, and left her mistress of the 
seas. 

It was therefore with a mingled feeling of surprise and Navy 
mortification, that Englishmen contemplated the recent united 
humiliation of their flag, in repeated combats with Ame- states. 
rican ships of war. For the first time in her naval his- 
tory, Grreat Britain enjoined it upon her officers to be 
extremely cautious in giving battle to American frigates, 
and always to avail themselves of superior force in so do- 
ing, whenever it was attainable. 

The Americans exulted in the same proportion. The 
people resolved upon having a navy, and measures were 
devised to place upon the ocean a respectable force, effi- 
cient alike in striking at the enemy in the open sea, and 
in guarding our bays and harbours against his predatory 
incursions. 



f 



■p 



If 








CHAPTER VII. 

THE CAMPAIGN OF 1814. 

The campaign of 1814 commenced with an unsuccess- bk. vr. 



ful expedition against Michilimackinac, a post of consider- ch. 7. 
able importance, so far as securing an influence over the j^ jy 
Indians and controlling the fur-trade are concerned. But 1814. 
before the troops could be embarked at Detroit, the bat- pj^^^ ^^ 
ties of Chippewa and Niagara redeemed, in a measure, thecam- 
tbe military reputation of the country. The first step to 
be taken, with a view to the conquest of Canada, was to 
recover Fort Niagara and capture Fort Erie. The Ame- 
rican troops, less than 4000, on the Canada frontier, were 
under the command of Major-General Brown, sent thither 
by General Wilkinson at Plattsburg, assisted by Briga- 
dier-Generals Scott, Gaines, and Ripley. The spring 
passed away before he was in a situation to attempt any 
thing against the British posts, then protected by Lieu- 
tenant-General Drummond, whose forces were augmented 
by a number of veteran regiments. 

On the 3d of July, General Brown invested Fort Erie, Surren- 
which capitulated, without striking a blow, and the pri- ^0^^° 
soners, 170 men, were marched into the interior of New ^"®- 
York. General Brown then resolved to attack Major- 
General Riall, who, with a division of British regulars, 
was entrenched at Chippewa. Here a general engage- 
ment was fought, with great coolness and bravery on both 
32 * (.377) 



878 GENERAL SCOTT. 

bk. VI. sides ; but victory declared for the Americans, marshalled 

Ch. 7. by Brown and Scott. In this battle, General Scott, then 

A. D. ^ yonng man of thirty, greatly distinguished himself, as 

1814. well as Majors Jesup, Leavensworth, and M'Neill. The 

Battle loss of the British was 505, in killed and wounded ; that 

ofchip- of the Americans, 338. After this pitched battle, the 

pewa. 

English fell back to Queenstown, and then to Ten Mile 
Creek. 

The battle of Chippewa, although not decisive in its 
results, was a brilliant victory, when it is remembered 
that the Americans contended with a superior force of 
regulars, accustomed to the wars of Europe. Moreover, 
it was the commencement of a series of successes, after 
the long prostration of the American arms. 

Unfortunately, Commodore Chauncey was ill, and the 
fleet on Lake Ontario was unable to co-operate with the 
army, in prosecuting the successes which had been gained; 
and General Brown, unprepared to pursue the enemy, 
fell back to the junction of the Chippewa and Niagara. 
Battle of Meanwhile, Lieutenant-General Drummond joined Ge- 
wate^^ neral Riall, with a large reinforcement, assumed the com- 
mand, and led his forces against the Americans. The 
two armies met at Bridgewater, near Niagara Falls, and 
the most desperate and bloody conflict of the whole war 
here ensued (July 25th). The battle was indecisive, and 
victory was claimed by both parties, although the palm 
is justly due to the Americans, since they contended 
against a superior force, and this force composed of 
veterans, and finally held the ground. In this bat- 
tle. Generals Brown and Scott were wounded, and the 
command devolved on General Ripley. The British Ge- 
nerals Drummond and Biall were also wounded. The 
loss on both sides was nearly equal, a little short of 900 
men being either killed or wounded, among both th« 



ATTACK ON FORT ERIE. 379 

Americans and English. In this battle, General Scott bk. vi. 
again signalized himself for impetuous bravery as well as Ch. 7. 
cool intrepidity, and gave the promise of ultimately a. d. 
reaching the height of his profession — which promise 1814. 
he has gloriously fulfilled by his Mexican campaign. 
General Ripley, Colonels Jesup, Miller, and Leavens- 
worth also won an honourable fame in that bloody battle- 
field. 

On the 8d of August, General Drummond followed siege of 
the American invaders to Fort Erie, then defended by jjrie. 
General Gaines, to which he laid siege, with 4000 troops. 
On the 12th, he attempted to carry the fort by assault, 
but was repelled, with great loss. His troops, it must be 
confessed, fought with desperate valour, stung with rage 
at the disgrace of being beaten by raw American recruits. 
But they were met with even greater valour. The Ame- f^^o^jJi^^tiig 
ricans retained their ground, and even made a sortie, on fort- 
the 17th of September, under General Porter, which 
nearly destroyed the whole British force. In this sortie, 
he was ably supported by General Ripley, General Mil- 
ler, Colonel Gibson, and Colonel Aspinwall, the latter 
of whom was seriously wounded. General Gaines, for 
his gallantry, was brevetted. 

General Izard, who now commanded at Plattsburg in- '^^^y 

^ march 

stead of General Wilkinson, with 7000 men, had been ofGeno 
ordered by the Secretary of War to move, with 3500 '^^^^"'* 
men, from Sackett's Harbour, for the assistance of Gene- 
ral Brown. Had he arrived in season, the whole British 
force might have been captured, and then nothing would 
have prevented the advance of the Americans upon Mon- 
, treal. But he did not arrive until late in the season, 
partly from the diflBculties of the march, and partly from 
disinclination to add to the laurels of General Brown, 
whom he looked upon with an eye of jealousy. He 



880 BATTLE OP PLATTSBURG. 

bk.vi- certainly did not expedite his march, "but took the longest 

Ch. 7. route, although General Brown had written to him im- 

A. D. plowing speedy aid. It was not until the 12th of October, 

1814. that he reached Fort Erie ; and, being the senior general, 

he assumed the command. He was now at the head of 

6000 excellent troops, and in good condition to face the 

enemy. Leaving a sufficient garrison at Fort Erie, he 

advanced towards Chippewa, to operate offensively against 

Ameri- Cr^^^^ral Drummoud ; but the English commander de- 

cansre- clincd a battle. The Americans were then forced to 

■winter- abandon Fort Erie, and to retire into winter-quarters, on 

quarters accouut of the approaching cold. 

Thus terminated the third invasion of Canada, not in- 
gloriously, as in the two preceding campaigns, since the 
British force was double that of the Americans. 

Before the army retired to Buffalo and Batavia for 

winter-quarters, a battle had been fought at Plattsburg, 

which resulted in the success of the American arms. 

Britisii General Izard, on his retirement from Plattsburg to 

upon^ assist General Brown, left nominally 3000 men, under 

piatts- the command of General Macomb, but only 1500 fit for 

burg. , . ^ J 

service. Sir George Prevost, commander-in-chief of the 
British forces in Canada, soon after made arrangements 
to attack Plattsburg with an army of 14,000 men. In 
this emergency. General Macomb called upon the gover- 
nors of New York and Vermont for assistance, and, in 
obedience to their orders, 3500 militia repaired to Platts- 
burg. The splendid American autumn had now com- 
menced. The troops, though only half in number to 
their adversary, were in good spirits, and vigorously ex- 
erted their energies in constructing defences. 

It was resolved by Sir George Prevost to attack Platts- 
burg both by land and water. For this purpose, in addi- 
tion to his great army, he had a powerful co-operating 



VICTORY ON LAKE CHaMPLAIN. 381 

naval force, under Commodore Downie. The Americans bk. vi. 
also had a considerable, though inferior squadron, for the Ch. 7. 
defence of Plattsburg, under Commodore M'Donough. a. d. 

On the 11th of September, the battle commenced, and 1814. 
the issue of it was decided on the lake. The British Battle of 
commodore, too confident of victory, attacked the Ameri- ^^^^^' 
can fleet in the harbour of Plattsburg, while the defences 
were assailed on the land by the troops of Prevost. 
M'Donough calmly awaited the attack, having chosen a 
ftivourable position, and, by admirable management, nearly 
annihilated the attacking squadron. General Macomb de- 
fended his position with equal skill, and successfully beat 
ofif the forces intended to crush him. Sir G-eorge Prevost, 
after a few disastrous skirmishes, withdrew his forces into 
Canada, in great haste and disorder. His disasters were 
unaccountable, and almost incredible — thus adding an- 
other confirmation to the great fact in the history of na- 
tions, that the battle is not always to the strong, or the 
race to the swift : to teach to the weak the great moral 
lesson of the folly of despair, and to the mighty, the folly 
of presumptuous self-confidence. Macomb, after his splen- 
did victory, was brevetted, and made commander-in-chief 
of the American army, and, in that station, he died, at 
Washington, universally respected and lamented. 

By this victory on Lake Champlain, the most decisive Conse- 
of the war. New England and New York were delivered of the 
from an enemy of vastly superior force ; and courage and ^^^^^'^y- 
energy, unequalled since the beginning of the contest, 
were imparted to the American troops. Had the war 
continued much longer, Canada would probably have 
fallen, and been joined to the American confederacy. 

While fortune smiled on the American arms on the 
Canadian frontier, considerable reverses were sustained by 
the navy. In the early part of the year, the frigate 



382 BURNING or THE CAPITOL. 

bk. VI. Essex, under Commodore Porter, was captured, in the 
Ch. 7. harbour of Valparaiso, by two British vessels; a loss 
j^ p, which was soon after redeemed in the capture of the 
1814. Epervier by the Peacock, in the Gulf of Mexico, and 
Naval through that of the Reindeer and Avar by the Wasp, 
\i<^t<>" each of her own size. On the 21st of September, the 
Wasp also captured the Atalanta, making her thirteenth 
prize ', but she herself never returned into port. Nearly 
contemporaneous was the capture of the President by a 
British squadron; a misfortune soon forgotten in the 
brilliant action achieved by Captain Stewart of the Con- 
stitution, in which he captured the frigate Cyane and 
sloop of war Levant. On the 23d of March, 1815, the 
Hornet captured the Penguin — the last naval action of 
consequence in the war. 

More important affairs now demand our attention. 
While our troops were marshalled at Plattsburg, the 
English succeeded in making a descent upon the capital 
of the nation, and in inflicting disgraceful outrages. 
British In the month of August, a powerful squadron, under 
the^Che- Sir Alexander Cochrane, having on board a large body of 
Bapeake. troops, commanded by General Ross, entered the Chesa- 
peake Bay, and proceeded up the Patuxent to Marlbo- 
rough, where they landed without opposition. Through 
the negligence of the Secretary of War, suitable prepara- 
tions had not been made to resist the enemy ; and the 
indecision and want of energy of General Winder, who 
commanded the American troops, hastily collected to- 
gether, enabled them to achieve an easy victory over him 
Tvash- at Bladensburg. The British commander then proceeded 
ingtoa ^Q Washington, and destroyed the dock-yards and ship- 
ping, and the public edifices of the government, including 
the capitol, with the valuable library of Congress and the 
President's house. "The President himself narrowly 



MEDITATED ATTACK ON BALTIMORE. OOO 

escaped capture. Having completed the work of devas- bk. vi. 
tation, like so many Vandals, the British soldiers retired Ch. 7. 
to their ships, and descended the river to the Chesapeake." a. d. 

General Armstrong, Secretary of War, was so severely 1814. 
censured for the disastrous capture of Washington, that Resigna- 
he was compelled to resign. Mr. Monroe, Secretary of ^°^^^ 
State, took charge of his department, and continued to strong, 
hold it till the 2d of March, 1816, when Mr. Crawford, 
of Georgia, was appointed Secretary of War. Ill health 
compelled Mr. Campbell, about this time, to resign the 
ofl&ce of Secretary of the Treasury, and he was succeeded 
by Mr. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. 

On the 6th of September, the English fleet, with more British 
than 5000 soldiers, sailed up the Chesapeake, with a view on^lai- 
of capturing Baltimore. They landed on the 12th, at timore. 
North Point, and General Ross and Admiral Cochrane, in 
the van, proceeded, without resistance, about four miles, 
when they were attacked by General Strieker, and com- 
pelled to retire, with the loss of the British commander. 
The country was now fairly aroused, and the English 
squadron, fearing its own safety, descended the bay, and 
jsailed for Pensacola, where large reinforcements, under 
General Packenham, a relative and a favourite lieutenant 
of Wellington, shortly after arrived; the capture of 
New Orleans by these forces being now projected. 

The scene of war now changed to the southern sections 
of the country, and was destined to be ended by the 
splendid successes of General Andrew Jackson. 

After concluding a treaty with the Creeks residing in Jackson 
Alabama and Georgia, this able general transferred his pen^ 
head-quarters to Mobile. Here he learned that three ^oia. 
ships of war had arrived at Pensacola, then a possession 
of the Spanish nation, and had landed 300 soldiers and a 
large quantity of military stores. Having in vain remon- 



384 BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. 

bk.vi. strated with the governor of Pensacola for harbouring 
Ch. 7. and assisting our enemies, he determined to seek redress 
A. D. without waiting for authority from Washington. Rein- 

1814. forced with 2000 Tennessee militia and some Choctaw 
Indians, he advanced toward Pensacola, and, reaching the 
city on the 6th of November, he stormed it on the follow- 
ing day. On the 9th, having accomplished his purpose, 
he returned to Mobile. 

New It had long been feared that New Orleans would be 

thread the ncxt objcct of attack by the British; the city was 
®^*^^- accordingly put in the best possible state of defence, and 
the militia organized. General Jackson, apprehensive of 
danger, arrived from Mobile, on the 2d of December. 
He superintended, with great zeal, all the various de- 
fences, called on the legislature for assistance, and secured 
considerable military supplies. 

On the 9th of December, the enemy, with sixty sail, 
was seen off the coast of Mississippi. On the 22d, a di- 
vision of the British, under General Keane, came sud- 
denly on the American guard, and took them prisoners. 
On the 23d, the enemy was in turn attacked by General 
Jackson, with considerable loss, and nothing but a fog, 
suddenly arising, prevented their complete discomfiture. 
Fortifi- Meanwhile, General Jackson continued to fortify his po- 
ofNew sition, between the Swamp and the Mississippi, and here 
Orleans, erected a breastwork of earth and cotton bags, a little 
outside of the city. After several ineffectual attempts to 
drive the Americans into the city. Sir Edward Packen- 

1815. ham, on the 8th of January, 1815, brought his whole 
I The at force, 15,000 strong, to attack the Americans, entrenched 

tktor behind their breastwork, one mile in length, with a ditch 

of the in front. Jackson's efficient force was about 3000 men. 

caus" The English advanced in solid column, on the even plain, 

assailed by the American batteries, until within musket- 



TREATY OF PEACE. 885 

shot, when a dreadful fire was opened upon them, so bk.vi. 
deadly and effective, that the enemy's columns were lite- Ch. 7. 
rally swept away. No troops could stand a fire which a. d. 
destroyed hundreds at every discharge. The British were 1815. 
broken, dispersed, and disheartened. The commander-in- Great 
chief was killed in an ineffectual attempt to animate them J^g^gJ. 
by his own example. They however rallied, under Gene- tish. 
rals Gibbs and Keane, and again were driven back, with 
immense slaughter. So dreadful a carnage has scarcely 
ever been recorded. So great a disproportion between 
the victors and the conquered is not furnished in the 
whole annals of war. Nearly 3000 of the enemy were 
slain, or wounded, or taken prisoners, while the Ameri- 
can loss was only seven killed and six wounded. 

General Lambert, who succeeded Sir Edward Packen- Conse- 
ham in command, and who was the only general officer of the 
left upon the field, immediately made preparations to re- ^^i^to^y- 
embark his troops ; and, relinquishing the hopeless enter- 
prise, the British, in the night of the 18th, with great 
secrecy, regained their ships. 

The news of this great victory was hailed with triumph- 
ant joy throughout the United States, and every honour 
was lavished on the illustrious commander. This battle 
closed the war. 

Meanwhile, before it was fought, a treaty of peace had 1814. 
been concluded at Ghent (December 24th, 1814). The ^^.^^^ 
treaty was signed on the part of the United States by J. of 
Q. Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan 
Russel, and Albert Gallatin. It stipulated for the mu- 
tual restoration of places taken in the war, the relinquish- 
ment of captures by sea, the cessation of Indian hostili- 
ties, the exchange of prisoners, and the adjustment of 
boundaries. But the subjects of impressment and the 
rights of neutrals; which had provoked the war, were left 
33 



386 REFLECTIONS ON THE WAR. 

bk.vi. unnoticed. The orders in council, however, had been 



Ch. 7. revoked, and impressment was no longer practised. 
A. D. Thus closed the war with Great Britain, which had 
1815. lasted two years and eight months, in which our armies 
Reflec- at first wcre signally defeated, owing to long habits of 
t^ns on pgace and want of abler generals. The misfortunes on 
the land, however, were compensated by victories on the 
water, which showed the superiority of the American 
navy over the English, whenever it contended with equal 
force ; and, before the war had closed, our armies gained 
victories proportionate to former defeats, as the exigencies 
of the times and military practice developed the talents 
of the younger generals and accustomed the people to the 
use of arms. The war was attended with great expenses, 
but the moral effect was beneficial, since the Americans 
gained much experience as well as the respect of Euro- 
pean nations. This war also showed the utter impossi- 
bility of gaining any material advantage over the Ameri- 
cans on their own soil, however great the forces of the 
enemy, while it taught the nation the necessity of being 
always prepared for war, by increasing the defences of 
the seaboard, maintaining a respectable military and naval 
force, and, above all, cherishing a decent respect for the 
military profession — for, a nation, in which the military 
spirit is extinct, is certainly doomed to great misfor- 
tunes. 
Sudden One of the effects of the war was to cripple for a while 
^^ices^ the commerce of the country, and to cause all British 
manufactured goods to rise to an enormous price. On 
the return of peace, the market was glutted with English 
merchandise; prices fell, and extensive bankruptcies en- 
sued. At no time, in the history of the country, were 
greater reverses of fortune experienced. 

During the war, extensive manufactories were esta- 



IMPORTANT ACTS OF CONGRESS. 387 

Wished, and such was their success, that an immense bk. vi. 
capital was soon invested in them. With peace, these Ch. 7. 
establishments, in some instances, were broken down, j^ ^^ 
but still, on the whole, continued to thrive, until the 1815 
United States have become nearly independent of all *o 
other nations. 

Before the adjournment of the thirteenth Congress, an Aige- 
act was passed, authorizing the President to despatch a ^JJ^^ 
squadron to the Mediterranean, to chastise the Algerines. tised. 
This force was put under the command of Commodore 
Decatur, who soon captured and destroyed all the princi- 
pal vessels of the enemy, and dictated to them the terms 
of peace. 

After many ineffectual attempts to secure a national Nation- 
bank, a bill was reported by Mr. Calhoun, on the 8th of 
June, 1815, which passed both houses of Congress, and 
was approved by the President. By this bill a bank was 
chartered, with a capital of thirty-five millions, and was 
located at Philadelphia. 

During the session of the fourteenth Congress, a new Tariff of 
tariff of duties on importations, designed to protect mode- 
rately American manufactures, was adopted, with the 
concurrence of several members of the democratic party. 

The last session of Congress held during the adminis- Acts of 
tration of Mr. Madison commenced on the •2d of Decern- coL^'^ 
ber, 1816, and closed on the 3d of March, 1817. One gress. 
of the most important acts of this session was that which 
provided for the payment of the national debt, which then 
exceeded one hundred and twenty millions. The naviga- 
tion laws were revised, and an act passed regulating the 
territories, and authorizing them to be represented in 
Congress by one delegate from each. 

On the 11th of December, 1816, Indiana was admitted 
into the Union, which had been partially settled by the 



388 STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 

bk. yi. Frencli a century before, and which then composed a part 
Ch. 7. of the Northwestern territory. 

j^ jy At the close of Madison's administration great efforts 

1817. were made in the cause of education, which had languished 

Cojn. for several years, and a spirit of religious inquiry, un- 

mence- known for half a century, once more aroused the country. 

prosper- The arts of life, too, received a great impulse, and the 

^^- nation, now amounting to nine millions five hundred 

thousand people, made new strides in civilization and 

power. The tide of emigration set strongly towards the 

West, and the great valley of the Mississippi and its 

branches were rapidly filled with enterprising inhabitants 

from the Old World and the Atlantic States. With the 

Refleo- establishment of peace was also a breaking up of the old 

Madi- political parties. The Federalists ceased to be a political 

son's ad- organization with the dissolution of the Hartford Con- 

niinis- ° ^ 1 mi 

tration. vcntiou, and new interests demanded new advocates. The 
ancient animosities in a measure disappeared with the re- 
tirement of Madison from the office which for eight years 
he had held with so much honour. It was his fortune to 
conduct affairs at a critical period, and when he retired to 
that private life which he knew so well how to enjoy, he 
bequeathed to his countrymen an unusual degree of tran- 
quillity, prosperity, and happiness. In the midst of lite- 
rary and agricultural occupations he spent his declining 
days, honoured by the respect of the nation, and cheered 
by the society of cultivated friends. With his retirement 
from office, March 3d, 1817, and the accession of James 
Monroe, a new era commenced in American affairs. 



BOOK VII. 

THE LATTER PRESIDENTS. 



■w\.A.rty^^-N 



CHAPTER I. 

ADMINISTRATION OF MONROE. 

The election of James Monroe, of Virginia, to the bk. vn. 
office of chief magistrate took place at a period of tran- Ch. i. 
quillity unexampled since the second election of Washing- j^ jy^ 
ton. He was a statesman of great moderation, and aimed 1817. 
to heal the divisions which had distracted the country. 
In the formation of his cabinet he made choice of John Mon- 
Quincy Adams as Secretary of State ; Mr. Crawford was ^binet. 
continued in the Treasury Department ; Governor Shelby 
was made Secretary of War ; Mr. Crowninshield, Secre- 
tary of the Navy ; and Mr. Rush was appointed Attorney- 
General. Mr. Rush was soon after sent to England, and 
Mr. Wirt took his place. 

After arranging affairs at Washington, the President 
made a tour of inspection through the Middle, Eastern, 
and Western States, and was everywhere received with 
demonstrations of respect. 

The fifteenth Congress assembled on the 1st of Decem- 
ber, 1817, and Henry Clay was unanimously chosen 

3.3 * (389) 



390 WAR WITH THE SEMINOLES. 

bk. yii. Speaker of the House. Daniel D. Tompkins, as Vice- 
Ch, 1. President of the United States, presided over the Senate. 
j^ j)^ On the 11th of December, Mississippi, having adopted 
1817. a State Constitution, was admitted into the confederacy — 
Missis- J* State which was first visited by Ferdinand de Soto, in 
sippi ad- 1539^ Ttje first settlement was at Natchez, where a fort 
into the was erected by the French. The French retained their 
Union, ^j^j^ ^^^-j 27C3, when they ceded the territory to the 
English. The Spaniards, however, claimed the territory, 
after the treaty of 1783, and occupied Natchez until 1798. 
Early in the year 1817, a band of smugglers and pri- 
vateers had taken possession of Galveston, in Texas, un- 
der authority, it was pretended, of the Spanish colonies, 
and with the view of a hostile enterprise against Florida. 
But the United States government deemed itself autho- 
rized to disperse the band. 
Taiiff The subject of internal improvements early occupied 
the attention of Congress, and an additional protective 
duty was imposed on various articles with great unanimity. 
Changes During the session of Congress further changes were 
cabinet, made in the cabinet. Governor Shelby declined his ap- 
pointment as Secretary of War, and John C. Calhoun was 
appointed. Mr. Crowninshield resigned the situation of 
Secretary of the Navy, and Smith Thompson, of New 
York, was appointed in his stead. 

Repeated outrages having been committed on the 
Semi- Southern frontiers, during the summer of 1817, by the 
Creek and Seminole Indians, who had taken refuge in 
Florida after their defeat by General Jackson, he was 
again sent against them. He accordingly pursued the 
Indians into the Spanish territory, and, by vigorous and 
severe measures, restored tranquillity. One of his acts 
produced considerable excitement at that time. Two 
Englishmen were found in Florida, exciting the Indians 



War 
with tho 



THE MISSOURI QUESTION. 391 

to insurrection, one of whom was sentenced to be sbot bk. vn. 
and the other to be hung. General Jackson's severity Ch. i. 
was much censured bj those who supposed he had tran- a. d. 
scended his powers; but Congress sanctioned his pro- 1818. 
ceedings. 

The Seminole war and the seizure of Spanish posts did Florida 
not prevent an amicable treaty with Spain. On the 22d 
of February, 1818, Florida was ceded to the United 
States, on a consideration of five millions allowed for 
spoliations. In the same year, December 3d, Illinois was 
admitted into the Union, which had been first settled by 
the French, in consequence of the discoveries of La Salle. 

On the 14th of December, 1819, Alabama was admit- 1819. 
ted into the Union — a territory which had long been the Admis- 
hunting ground of the Indians, and over which Georgia ^labar 
laid claim after the Revolutionary war. "^^• 

The most important question which was discussed by The Mis- 
Congress, during the administration of President Monroe, ^^^^ 
was that which related to the admission of Missouri into ^-i'*^- 
the Union. It was maintained by a large class, chiefly 
northern men, that no additional State tolerating the ex- 
istence of slavery ought to be received into the confederar 
tion, thus reviving the agitation of the slavery question. 
The war, which has not yet ended, was then fairly opened. 
The congressional debates were exceedingly warm. The 
champions of the South were William Pinekney, James 
Barbour, Henry Clay, and John Randolph ; those of the 
North were Rufus King, John Sergeant, John W. Tay- 
lor, and Samuel A. Footo. " The waves of anarchy began 
to surge violently over the ramparts of the Constitution, 
and Cassandras were not wanting to predict the fall of 
Troy." Neither party gained the day. Mr. Clay pro- 
posed a compromise, and hushed the strife. His amend- 
ments were adopted, and the President approved the bill. 



392 DIVISION or parties. 



^^- ^"- Missouri was subsequently admitted (August 10th, 1821), 
Cb. 1. with the clause that slavery should be for ever prohibited 
A. D. in that part of the territory, except the State then formed, 
181.0. lying north of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes north 
latitude — a line which formed the southern boundary of 
the State. Maine became an independent State the pre- 
vious year (March 3d, 1820). 

The administration of Monroe had been one of unex- 
ampled peace and tranquillity, few acts of importance 
having been passed by Congress, and few events of poli- 
tical interest having occurred. No serious opposition 
was made to his re-election, and he was inaugurated a 
second time, March 5th, 1821. 

The seventeenth Congress assembled on the 3d of De- 
cember, 1821, and three new Senators, of subsequent 
ixirs ot fame, took their seats — Martin Van Buren, Samuel S. 
Southard, of New Jersey, and Thomas H. Benton, of 
Missouri. Among the other prominent members who 
were re-elected were Messrs. J. W. Taylor, Sergeant, 
Mallery, M'Lane, Barbour, Kandolph, Cambreleng, Wal- 
worth, M'DujQfie, and Poinsett. 
New po- Divisions now began to be more apparent in the repub- 
parties Hcau rauks, and six candidates appeared for the next pre- 
formed. si(jeQtial contest — John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jack- 
son, Henry Clay, William H. Crawford, William Lowndes, 
and John C. Calhoun. The great questions of a protective 
tariff and a general system of internal improvements now 
became the leading subjects of discussion. The old fede- 
ral party was broken up, and John Q. Adams and Henry 
Clay, both republicans, stood forth the champions of that 
party which finally settled into what is now called the 
Whig. Their chief opponents were the friends of Gene- 
ral Jackson and Calhoun. 
1822. In March, 1822, the President recommended the public 



1821. 

New 
mem 



Con- 
gress. 



VISIT OF LAFAYETTE. 893 

recognition of the independence of the revolted States of bk. vii. 
South America, against the protest of the Spanish minis- Ch. i. 
ter, and Congress, by an almost unanimous vote, appro- a. d. 
priated one hundred thousand dollars to defray the ex- 1823 
penses of a mission to those newly declared republics. *o 

Few acts of general interest were passed by either the " ' 
seventeenth or the eighteenth Congress, all being absorbed 
in the election of a new President. But some eminent men 
were elected to the national legislature, among whom were 
Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina, Andrew Jackson, 
of Tennessee, Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, Forsyth, 
of Georgia, Rives, of Virginia, and Livingston, of Lou- 
isiana. 

Neither of the presidential candidates succeeded in ob- Adams 
taining a majority of the electoral votes, and it was there- Jlj.^gj.'^ 
fore left to the House of Representatives to make a selec- dent. 
tion from the three highest on the list, and the influence 
of Henry Clay being thrown in favour of J. Q. Adams, 
he was accordingly chosen President. Mr. Calhoun had 
already received a majority of the electoral votes for Vice- 
President. 

Before the administration of Monroe came to an end, Arrival 
the country was visited by an illustrious guest — the Mar- fayette. 
quis de la Fayette, whose services in the Revolutionary 
war had secured him the gratitude of the nation. His 
visit occupied about a year, during which he visited each 
of the twenty-four States, and was everywhere hailed with 
enthusiasm. Congress treated him with marked atten- 
tion, and bestowed a grant of a township and two hun- 
dred thousand dollars as a remuneration for his past ser- 
vices. No foreigner ever visited our shores who was 
received with such universal respect. 

Mr. Monroe left the helm of state when the country 
was making rapid strides to greatness and wealth. A 



894 PROGRESS OP THE UNITED STATES. 

bk. vn. large accession of territory had been made during his 
Ch. 1. administration, and the national debt had been greatly 
^ jy reduced. Meanwhile schools and colleges had been en- 
1825. dowed in every quarter, and philanthropic societies had 
Progress everywhere been established, to ameliorate the condition 
in arts, Qf ^j^g miserable, or to send the gospel to the heathen. 

•wealth, , o 

educa- Many of the States made large appropriations for public 
liteia^*^ instruction, and a new class of authors arose — those who 
ture. devoted their talents to the improvement of school-books. 
Newspapers, devoted to the advancement of the various 
objects of religion and philanthrophy, as well as politics 
and literature, increased wonderfully during this adminis- 
tration. The North American Review was commenced 
in 1815; Silliman's Journal in 1817; The Christian 
Spectator in 1819, afterwards merged into the Biblical 
Repository. Sabbath-school Unions were formed in 1817, 
in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Baltimore. In 

1817, Mr. Gallaudet introduced a system of instruction 
for the blind at Hartford, and, in seven years after, there 
were six insane retreats established in various parts of the 
country. About this period the American Education So- 
ciety, the American Peace Society, the Tract Society, 
Sabbath-school Society, and the Missionary Society, were 

steam- either incorporated or received a great impulse. Steam- 
tion.° navigation also fairly commenced during this period, 
ploughing the mighty waters of the Mississippi as well 
as inland lakes and ocean bays. In 1819, Captain Shreve 
made a trip in twenty-five days from New Orleans to 
Louisville, and in 1820 the first steamer ascended the 
Arkansas. Lake Erie was first navigated by steam in 

1818. Railroads were not constructed until 1827, and 
the application of electro-magnetism to the communica- 
tion of intelligence was made at a still later date. 

One of the most exciting and interesting subjects which 



PROSPERITY OF THE COUNTRY. 395 

came under general discussion at this time was the Uni- bk. vn. 
tarian question. The war was commenced in Boston in Ch. i. 
1815, and Drs. Channing and Ware led the van, opposed a. d. 
by Drs. Woods and Stuart as the principal leaders among 1825. 
the adherents of the ancient faith. In 1822 the Chris- 
tian Register opened its batteries, which were answered 
by the Spectator and the Spirit of the Pilgrims. Since 
1824 the controversy has declined in character and in- 
terest. 

Thus, reviving commerce, arts, science, literature, and 
great popular movements in education, philanthropy, and 
religion, closed the peaceful administration of James 
Monroe — a man whose mind was '^ unwearied in the 
pursuit of truth ; patient of inquiry ; courteous, even in 
the collision of sentiment; sound in its ultimate judg- 
ments, and firm in its final conclusions." 



CHAPTER II. 

ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS AND 
ANDREW JACKSON. 

bk. yh. On the 4tli of March, 1825, John Quincy Adams was 
ch. 2. inaugurated President of the United States, and took the 
A jy chair vacated twenty-eight years before by his venerated 
1825. father. He selected Henry Clay for Secretary of State, 
Ng^ Richard Rush for the Treasury, James Barbour for the 
cabinet. "^Tg^j. Department, Samuel L. Southard for the Navy, and 
William Wirt for Attorney-General. 

As we now descend to our own contemporaries a mere 
chronicle of their deeds will be registered, without enter- 
ing into the merits of those subjects which they discussed. 
Party spirit, that necessary evil to free governments, will 
not enable the clearest minds to see party questions in 
the light they will appear to future generations. 
Com- The year 1825 was marked by a spirit of commercial 

specula- gambling, produced by the unexampled prosperity of the 
*ion. last few years. Everything rose in value — all kinds of 
stocks and every variety of merchandise — followed, of 
course, by a revulsion, both in England and America, 
which made bankrupts of thousands, and reduced every- 
thing to less than its previous value. 
1826. The year 1826 was signalized by the deaths of Thomas 
Jefferson and John Adams, the venerable ex-Presidents, 
on the fiftieth anniversary of the National Independence 

(396) 



ADMINISTRATION OP GENERAL JACKSON. 397 

Funeral orations were delivered in every part of the bk. vii. 
Union. That delivered by Mr. Webster is perhaps one Ch. 2. 
of the most eloquent efforts of this greatest of living men a. d. 
of genius. 1826 

Mr. Adams was doomed to experience a fierce and un- *^ 
precedented opposition in Congress, which deprived him 
of the opportunity of carrying into execution many im- 
portant measures, and hence congressional history during 
this administration is unusually barren. The most im- ?'*f!'^''^ 
portant measures related to the tariff. A bill passed the 
House on the 22d of April, 1828, and the Senate on the 
13th of May, which gave but little satisfaction to the 
country at large. By this bill protection was given to 
various branches of manufactures, which has since been 
withdrawn. 

Although Mr. Adams, by force of great opposition, 
was prevented from carrying his plans into operation, still 
he could, at the close of his administration, in 1829, look 
back upon his labours with satisfaction. The national 
debt was still further reduced, and large appropriations 
were made for objects of lasting public benefit. Five mil- 
lions were granted to the surviving officers of the Revo- 
lution, and one and a half million were appropriated in 
extinguishing Indian titles. 

On the 4th of March, 1829, General Andrew Jackson, Jack- 
by a large electoral vote, succeeded J. Q. Adams in the ^binet. 
presidency, and chose for his cabinet, Martin Van Buren 
for the State, Samuel D. Ingham for the Treasury, John 
H. Eaton for the War, and John Branch for the Navy 
Department. John M. Berrien was made Attorney-Ge- 
neral, and William T. Barry Postmaster-General. 

With General Jackson commenced the system of exten- Change 
sive removals from office — a system which has since been ^^^'^^^"^ 



898 MEASURES RECOMMENDED BY THE PRESIDENT. 

bk. TTi. generally adopted, and which was designed to reward po- 
Ch. 2. litical partizans. This course of the President was vio- 
A. D. lentlj denounced by his opponents, and as strongly justified 
1829 by his friends. It is not for the author of this history to 
^^ pronounce upon the wisdom or folly of the policy — it 
"" certainly had the merit of being something new in the 
history of civilized nations : one of those evidences of pro- 
gress, similar in its spirit to that which appoints judges for 
a limited time, and selects the young, in preference to the 
old and experienced, for important and responsible posts. 
Pj.ggi. In the message of the President to the twenty-first 

dent's Congress, he recommended a modification of the tariff, 

mes- u / 

sage. the removal of the Indians to the west of the Mississippi, 
and a consideration of the renewal of the United States 
Bank — all of which subjects led to violent and angry 
debates, and finally to the passage of acts in accordance 
with the wishes of the executive. 
New General Jackson did not long remain at peace with his 

cabinet, cabinet, which resigned in the spring of 1831, in conse- 
quence of domestic intrigues. The new cabinet was com- 
posed of Edward Livingston as Secretary of State, Louis 
M'Lane, Secretary of the Treasury, Levi Woodbury, Se- 
cretary of the Navy, Lewis Cass, Secretary of War, and 
Koger B. Taney, Attorney-General. 
Bank ^^ 1831, a bill was brought forward for granting a 

veto. charter to the United States Bank, the old charter being 
about to expire. The discussion of the bill was angry 
and animated. It passed only by a small majority, and 
was vetoed by the President. No one has exercised the 
power of veto more than General Jackson. During his 
administration he vetoed no less than ten bills. The 
other Presidents combined have vetoed but eight. 
Indian The year 1832 was marked by hostile incursions of the 
+?o,. Winneba.2:oes, Sacs, and Foxes — Indians inhabiting the 



SOUTH CAROLINA NULLIFICATION. 399 

Upper Mississippi — under the celebrated Black Hawk, bk. vn. 
against whom Generals Atkinson and Scott were sent, Ch. 2. 
who in a short time completely dispersed them, and ^ ^^ 
restored tranquillity on the frontiers. 1832. 

But a greater subject of interest marked this year, gouth 
which was the disposition of South Carolina to secede Carolina 

threat- 

from the Union. The discontent was caused by the pro- ens to 
tective duties, which the South Carolinians declared were f^the 
hostile to their interests and unconstitutional in them- Union, 
selves. It is ever to be regretted that the celebrated John 
C. Calhoun favoured the agitation. Governor Hamilton 
even recommended to the legislature the organization of 
the militia and the collection of munitions of war, with a 
view of secession. But the President immediately took 
the most vigorous measures, and issued an ordinance in 
which he declared his resolution to enforce the laws. 
The course which the President adopted gave general 
satisfaction, except to South Carolina, whose government 
perceived the folly of open contention with the whole 
power of the land, and gradually withdrew its oppo- 
sition. 

The bill for a new tariff, which had been introduced in 1833. 
1832, passed the 3d of March, 1833, and gave satisfac- New 
tion to no partizans of any school. It was simply a com- **"^ ■ 
promise between the North and the South, effected by 
that great pacificator and patriotic statesman, Henry Clay, 
whom the whole nation has loved, but never united to 
honour. 

General Jackson was re-elected in the autumn of 1832, 
and on the 4th of March, 1833, entered upon his second 
terra, while Martin Van Buren was elected Vice-Pre- 
sident. 

One of the first measures of importance which the Pre- 
sident took after his second inauguration was the removal 



400 INDEPENDENCE OF TEXAS. 

^^- ^'^^- of government deposits from the United States Bank, 

Ch. 2. against which he had waged war. This measure raised 

A. D. one of the most violent clamours ever known in the 

1835. United States, chiefly among commercial men, who pre- 

Remo- dieted national bankruptcy; and much embarrassment 

gaiern- ^^^^^J resulted. The House of Representatives sustained 

ment the President; the Senate condemned the measure as 

dcDOsits 

■ unconstitutional ; but the President, with his usual firm- 
ness, maintained his position, and continued the warfare. 
In his annual message he denounced the bank as the 
scourge of the people, and accused it of corruption and 
bribery, and of extending its accommodations for political 
purposes. 
Rebel- In 1835, the people of Texas rebelled against the go- 
Texas vernment of Mexico, which had abolished slavery through- 
^ainst Qut i^g territory. But the people of Texas, chiefly emi- 
grants from the southern and south-western States, wish- 
ing to restore slavery and annex their province to the 
United States, declared war against the Mexican Bepub- 
lic. Thousands of volunteers rushed to the standard of 
the revolted province, and among them doubtless many 
citizens of the United States. General Houston com- 
manded the Texan troops, and by his admirable military 
talents, aided by means from the United States, a govern- 
ment was organized, slavery established, and the way pre- 
pared for its ultimate admission into the Union. John 
Quincy Adams was then a member of the House of Re- 
presentatives, and denounced the whole insurrection as a 
project designed to perpetuate and extend slavery. He 
had already commenced the agitation of the slavery ques- 
tion in Congress by the presentation of petitions. The 
southern members became alarmed, and Congress was in- 
duced to pass resolutions declaring that it had no consti- 
tutional authority to interfere with the institution of 



REMOVAL OF THE SEMINOLES. 401 

slavery in any of the States, and that it ought not to b^- ^"H- 
interfere with slavery in the District of Columbia. ck. 2. 

This was the period when the discussion of this subject a. d. 
was most agitating and general throughout the northern 1835 
States, which led to many outrages and to great acrimony ^ 
between the North and South. 

In 1835, preparations were made for the removal Remo. 
of the Seminole Indians from East Florida, which g*J.^ 
led to a brief contest with that unfortunate tribe. In noies. 
1834, a treaty was concluded with them, in which they 
agreed to remove beyond the Mississippi. During the 
three following years a part emigrated, but a large number 
refused to go. They wandered about the country, com- 
mitting depredations, and hiding themselves in swamps 
and thickets, from which they issued to commit new acts 
of violence. Their leading spirit was Osceola, A de- 
tachment was sent against them, under General Clinch, 
who however met with considerable loss. Nor was any 
thing satisfactorily effected against them until after the 
retirement of General Jackson, in 1837, who, after a suc- 
cessful and vigorous administration, resigned his powers, 
which some maintained he had exceeded, into the hands 
of Martin Van Buren. No President, if we may except 
Jefferson, has had such bitter political enemies as Jack- 
son. None have had the misfortune to stem greater 
party animosities than he ; and it has been the fortune 
of none to have them so speedily and generally allayed. 
Andrew Jackson will pass down to posterity as one of the 
most remarkable men of his age, successful in war, and 
patriotic as the chief magistrate of a great nation. 

Before the administration of General Jackson closed, 
Arkansas and Michigan were admitted into the American 
confederacy (June 15th, 1836). 

The north-western States, during this administration, 
34* 



402 COMMERCIAL SPECULATION. 

^^- "^^- rapidly increased in population and resources, and a spirit 
Oh. 2. of commercial speculation arose, unprecedented in the 
A. D. history of the country. This reached its climax in 1836, 
1836. a year memorable for the absurd extension of credit to 
all speculators. Speculation was extended to every vari- 
ety of business, but to nothing so remarkably as to west- 
Land em and eastern lands, which reached a fictitious price, 
lation* N^w cities were laid out in the wilderness, and high prices 
demanded for building-lots, which still remain unsettled. 
The delusion and mania extended to all parts of the com- 
munity, and affected the strongest minds. All articles 
rose in value, and scarcely a man was engaged in business 
who did not dream of realizing an enormous fortune. 
Com- ;gy^; an end soon came to their dreams, and the revulsions 

mercial ' 

embar- of fortunc, iu the year 1837, taught the country the in- 
ments. ^vitablc disaster which must sooner or later attend all 
commercial gambling. Moreover, a great fire in New 
York destroyed, in 1835, some twenty millions of pro- 
perty — a loss which was subsequently felt by all classes 
in the community. Many insurance companies failed, 
and involved in their failure the ruin of many widows and 
orphans who had invested in these corporations what little 
property they possessed. These commercial evils were 
destined to break up for a time, the ascendency of the 
democratic party. 



CHAPTER III. 

ADMINISTRATION OF MARTIN VAN BUREN. 

Martin Van Buren was iii?iugurated on the 4th of bk. th. 
March, 1837, and continued the policy of his "illustrious ch. 3. 
predecessor," and made but few changes in the cabinet ^ jy 
or occupants of official stations. 1837. 

The great commercial revulsion of 1837 marked the q^^^. 
first year of his administration — caused, not only by ex- merdai 

• 1-111 . "^ *^. revul- 

cessive speculation, but also by extravagant importations siona. 
of European goods. To pay for these, there was abund- 
ance of paper-money, but very little gold. Moreover, the 
specie of the country was gradually collected in the public 
offices, in consequence of the circular of 1836, which re- 
quired payment for public lands to be made in gold or 
silver. Large quantities also had been sent to France 
and England for useless luxuries. In consequence, the 
banks were compelled to suspend specie payments in all 
of the principal cities of the country, and general disaster 
and bankruptcy followed. All confidence was destroyed. 
Business was suspended. The sinews of enterprise were 
severed. Innumerable failures resulted. Property of 
all kinds declined in value, and those who had the year 
I, before fancied themselves rich found themselves penniless. 
Most persons who owed money to any extent, no matter 
what their nominal assets, were ruined, for they were 
unable to sell what they possessed. The year before all 

(403) 



404 RETURN TO INDUSTRY AND ECONOMY. 

bk. vn. were anxious to buy. This year all were anxious to sell, 
Ch. 3. but purchasers could not be found, except at ruinous 
A. D. pi"ices. " It is an ill wind that blows nobody any good." 
1837. Those who had kept aloof from speculation, and had 
money at command, made large fortunes; but the great 
mass of people were depressed. Trade and manufactures 
stood still. Poor people could not find employment. 
Consternation seized upon every class in society. 
Change lu this general calamity a change to some extent was 
hlb^s gradually wrought in the habits of the nation. The peo- 
of the pie who had been speculating and trading became farmers, 
peop e- rpj^^ j^^^ ^^-jj ygj^^ined, capable of unfolding illimitable 
wealth. The agricultural population received a great ac- 
cession of respectability and means. Farms rapidly im- 
proved. Importance was attached to the cultivation of 
the soil, which had been unknown since the Revolutionary 
war — for this kind of employment seemed at least more 
free from reverses of fortune. It was observed that the 
farmers suffered less than any other class in the commu- 
nity. Those who were free from debt felt themselves to 
be rich, and were truly independent ; for the land yielded 
its increase, in spite of commercial revulsions. There can 
be no doubt that the embarrassments and misfortunes 
which afflicted the commercial and manufacturing classes 
resulted, in the end, in developing truer sources of wealth, 
inasmuch as habits of industry and economy were again 
formed by a large body of men who had relied on their 
wits for support, and who had indulged in the delusion 
that the exchange of property, and great issues of paper- 
money to facilitate that exchange, would add to material 
True wealth. There are no real sources of wealth, in any na- 
natSnaf ^^^^' exccpt in habits of industry, directed to manufac- 
weaith. tures, agriculture, and a limited commerce. After all, 
land is the foundation of wealth, not gold and silver, since 



EXTRA SESSION OF CONGRESS. 405 

land alone will feed the hungry and clothe the naked, bk. tit. 



Gold is only a medium of exchange, and declines in value Ch. 3. 
in proportion to the ease with which it is obtained, while ^ ^^ 
labour, directed to the improvement of the soil, to the cul- 1837. 
ture of fruits and herbs and vegetables, increases the ca- 
pacity of a country to support a rising population, and 
gives a healthy leisure to those who are doomed to toil. 

An extra session of Congress was assembled on the 4th ThcSub- 
of September, 1837, in order to deliberate on the financial g^J^ 
distresses of the country. The President recommended scheme. 
a scheme, called the Sub-Treasury, instead of a national 
bank, the charter of which had expired, and the directors 
of which were now winding up its concerns. This cele- 
brated scheme proposed to place the public revenues 
in the custody of commissioners, instead of banks, sub- 
ject to the control of the Secretary of the Treasury. 
A bill, accordingly, was introduced into the Senate, to 
meet the recommendations of the President, which passed 
that body, 26 to 20, but was lost in the House, 120 
to 107. 

The enemies of the administration attributed the exist- Party 
ing evils to the refusal of Congress to recharter the ^aUonL 
United States Bank, and the consequent distribution of 
the public moneys into local banks, which, unchecked 
and uncontrolled by a great central institution, were in- 
duced to discount bills too freely upon the deposits which 
were transferred to them, and thus to encourage a spirit 
of speculation. The friends of the administration main- 
tained, that the embarrassments were caused by the con- 
traction of a large foreign debt, by a spirit of extrava- 
gance, by over-trading, by vast internal improvements, 
and the great fire in New York, December, 1835. The 
other party did not deny these facts, but still maintained 
that this over-trading and speculation were caused by the 



406 THE AFFAIR OF THE CAROLINE. 

B^- ^^^- improper facilities which the banks afforded in conse- 

Ch. 3. quence of the destruction of the controlling central money 

A. D. power. 

1837. Congress convened again, on the first Monday in De- 
Rea8- cember, 1837, and the President again recommended the 
wi^'cr of Sub-Treasury scheme, and the issue of treasury-notes to 
Con- meet the wants of government. This favourite measure 
^^ * of the President again passed the Senate, and was again 

defeated in the House. 

1838. The year 1838 was marked by serious disturbances in 
Cana- Canada, between the inhabitants and the colonial govern- 
troubies ™^^*- -^ large party had arisen favourable to independ- 
ence, which was favoured by many Americans on the Ca- 
nadian frontier, both from sympathy and with the hope 
of its ultimate annexation to the United States. A party 
of reckless adventurers took possession of Navy Island, 
in the Niagara river, and hired a steamboat, called tho 
Caroline, to facilitate their unlawful designs, notwithstand- 
ing the proclamations of the President and the governor 
of New York, enjoining a strict neutrality. But the Ca- 
roline was not suffered by the Canadians to be used by 
these American sympathizers; and an armed party of 150 
men proceeded, in the night of the 20th of December, 
from the Canada side, and burned the vessel, after dis- 
persing the crew. 

Specie On the 13th of August, 1838, the banks resumed 
ments. spccic payments, to the great satisfaction of the mercan- 
tile community ; but, unfortunately, in the following year, 
9th of October, the Philadelphia banks, and consequently 
those south and west, again suspended their payments in 
specie. 
Theoio- This year was rendered memorable in the theological 

fifical dis- 

cussions annals of the country by the divisions of the Presbyterian 
church into two rival bodies, called the Old and the New 



THE PRESBYTERIAN CONTROVERSY. 407 

School. The difficulties commenced by an attack on an bk. tit. 
eminent clergyman in Philadelphia, Rev. Albert Barnes, Ch. 3. 
for heresy. He was accused of preaching certain doctrines, ^ jy 
which were fashionable at New Haven, pertaining to free- 1834 
will and original sin, and which, by many, were thought ^ 
to have too close a resemblance to ancient Pelagianism. ■'■°*^^- 
The controversy, which led to the establishment of a the- '^^^ ^^^ 
ological school at East Windsor, in 1834, in opposition to schools, 
that of New Haven, also led, in 1835, to the trial of Mr. 
Barnes, on charges preferred by Rev. Dr. Jenkins, in the 
Philadelphia Presbytery, and he was acquitted. Dr. Jen- 
kins appealed to the Synod, which reversed the judgment 
of the Presbytery, and suspended Mr. Barnes from the 
ministry. Mr. Barnes then appealed to the General As- 
sembly, which sustained him, and restored him to his 
ministerial standing. Upon this, the Old School party 
rallied, and, in the General Assembly which met in Phi- 
ladelphia in 1837, having a small majority, cut oflf certain 
synods, in which the new doctrines prevailed, from their 
body. This led to a separate organization of the New 
School party, which, as well as the Old School, claimed 
to be the Presbyterian church, and consequently laid 
claim to the property of the church. The courts of law, 
however, gave such decisions that the property remained 
with the Old School party. 

Durinff this controversy the relisrious world was divided ^^^^"^ 
by various other dissensions, arising out of new measures gicai 
as well as new views, and connected with discussions on ^g^gf^^ 
various moral questions, especially those pertaining to 
slavery and temperance. The Episcopal church, both in 
England and America, was distracted by the famous Ox- 
ford tracts and the movement which Dr. Pusey and his 
followers encouraged, in reference to external forms and 
ceremonies and symbols, as well as points of faith. This 



408 POLITICAL CHANGES. 

bk. VII. period was the era of benevolent societies and organiza- 

Ch. 3. tions to propagate every form of doctrines and every mode 

A. D. of moral reformation. It was the golden age of agents 

1837 and lecturers, and platform speeches and moral machinery 

*^ to remodel society. Peace and tract, and anti-slavery and 

temperance, and moral reform, and missionary societies, 

Popular ggjj^ Q^(. their various lecturers into every city and hamlet 

reforms. '' *' 

of the land, and the people were called upon to decide 
the great principles of ethics as well as to contribute 
money to that great system of public enlightenment 
which was destined to produce such magnificent results. 
Indeed, this was the era of agitation throughout the civil- 
ized world. Great Chartist meetings were held in Eng- 
land. O'Connell was addressing discontented Irish com- 
munities. The Jesuits were suppressed in Spain j and 
debates on the corn-laws were beginning to agitate the 
British nation. All these political and moral commo- 
tions were considered as the necessary ebullitions of an 
age of progress and freedom. 
Political Meanwhile the general discontent of the American 
tSns! people, and the great commercial sufferings which had 
been experienced, led to a revulsion in politics, and de- 
stroyed faith in the existing political rulers. Great po- 
litical agitations ensued, and every thing else was neg- 
lected in the heat of the new presidential election, 
(jo^^g^. A convention assembled at Harrisburg, two days after 
tion at the opening of the twenty-sixth Congress, December 2d, 
burg. 1839, which nominated General Harrison, for President, 
and John Tyler, for Vice-President. " The election 
campaign of 1840 was distinguished for its popular en- 
thusiasm, mass meetings, long processions, and song-sing- 
ing.'' A change of rulers, it was asserted, would restore 
prosperity. Hope stimulated energy, and Harrison re- 
ceived the suffrages of the people. 



PASSAGE OP THE SUB-TREASURY. 409 

Congress, during the long session of 1840, did almost bk. vir. 
nothing but direct the election campaign. However, two cu. 3. 
acts of some importance were passed — one which provided a. d. 
for the taking of the sixth census of the United States, 1840. 
and the other, which adopted Mr. Van Buren's scheme of 
collecting and disbursing the public revenue. The Sub- 
Treasury scheme at last became a law, on which the Pre- 
sident had staked his political fortune — a stake he was 
destined to lose. In his last message, December 7th, 
1840, he congratulated the country on the restoration of 
public prosperity — an assertion which needed qualifica- 
tion. Nothing of consequence was transacted during the Retire-, 
second session of the twenty-sixth Congress ; and, at its y^ 
close, Mr. Van Buren retired to Kinderhook, and has Barcn. 
gince led a life of dignified leisure. 



35 



cabinet. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ADMINISTRATION OP GENERAL HARRISON. 

Bg- VII- No President, since Washington, has entered upon 
Ch.4. the duties of his office with more popular enthusiasm 

A. D. than William Henry Harrison. From no administration 

1841. were greater expectations formed ; since an entire change 
of policy was expected, in order to relieve the public em- 
barrassments, restore credit, and foster the yarious inte- 
rests of the country. 

The new Daniel Webster, the most commanding and compre- 
hensive intellect which our nation has produced, was his 
Secretary of State; and this great statesman was sup- 
ported by Thomas Ewing, as Secretary of the Treasury ; 
John Bell, as Secretary of War ; George E. Badger, as 
Secretary of the Navy; John J. Crittenden, as Attorney- 
General, and Francis Granger, as Postmaster-General. 
These distinguished gentlemen formed one of the ablest 
cabinets known since the times of the early Presidents — • 
selected for their ability and experience, and representing 
all sections of the land. 

Death of But before the assembling of Congress — before any 
measure of importance could be adopted, and within one 
month from his inauguration. General Harrison died, — 
worn out with the excitements pertaining to his new po- 
sition, and oppressed by the load of responsibilities. He 

(410) 



Harri 
sou 



TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION. 411 

had for years led a quiet life, in agricultural pursuits, at bk. vii, 
his farm on the North Bend, near Cincinnati, and was Ch. 4. 
not fitted to encounter the long speeches and long dinners a. d. 
to which he was compelled to submit, or the importunities 184 L 
of office-hunters, or the intrigues of politicians. He was 
killed with kindness and labours, even as Voltaire, after 
a long residence at Ferney, was smothered with the roses 
which the Parisians collected for his honour. 

The Vice-President, John Tyler, became, of course, 
the occupant of the "White House,'' retaining the cabi- 
net of his predecessor, and pursuing for a while the 
measures of the party which had elevated him into 
power. 

On the 31st of May, 1841, a special session of Con- Repeal 
gress was convened, in pursuance of a call made by Har- '^^^^ 
rison, with a view of relieving the financial troubles of the Troa- 
country. On the 6th of August, Congress repealed the ^^^^' 
Sub-Treasury law of Van Buren, and also established a Bank- 
uniform system of bankruptcy throughout the United J""^* 
States, which latter created a sort of commercial jubilee 
for all bankrupts and debtors, and by which their debts 
were cancelled and their claims relinquished. Such was 
the universal commercial distress and the extent of fail- 
ures, that this extraordinary measure proved advantageous, 
although designed as a mere remedy for existing evils, 
rather than as a settled policy to be uniformly pursued. 

The attention of Congress, however, was mainly di- veto of 
rected to the establishment of a national bank, as the byj^^,"''^ 
most efficient means of restoring the credit of the country. 
But, to the general disappointment of his party and the 
dismay of all financial men, the President vetoed the bill. 
Another, similar in character, was passed, and was again 
vetoed ; upon which the cabinet resigned, with the excep- 
tion of Mr. Webster, who was induced to remain, from 



412 NEW TARIFF PASSED. 

bk. VII. patriotic considerations^ and attend to the rising difficul- 
, Ch. 4. ties with England. 
^, D, The United States were now on the eve of a war with 

1841. the first power of the world — the country was deeply 
Eepudi- embarrassed, and its credit in Europe destroyed. Many 
aUon. Qf ^j^g States were compelled to suspend the payment of 

the interest of their debts, and were stigmatized abroad 
as repudiating States. Pennsylvania, which had greatly 
suffered by the failure of the new bank, under Mr. Bid- 
die, which bore the name of the United States Bank, and 
thus deceived foreigners, and which also suffered from 
injudicious public expenditures, became a by-word in 
Europe. Its stock fell below fifty cents on the dollar, 
and great numbers who held the stock were ruined ; and 
it is a glorious proof of the immense resources of the 
State that it should so soon retrieve its fortunes and its 
good name. 
New On the resignation of the old cabinet, Walter Forward 

^ "^ ' became Secretary of the Treasury, John C. Spencer, Secre- 
tary of War, Abel P. Upshur, Secretary of the Navy, Hugh 
S. Legare, Attorney-General, and Charles A. Wickliffe, 
Postmaster-General. 

The twenty-seventh Congress commenced its session on 
the 6th of December, 1841, and passed an act apportion- 
ing the representatives according to the new census, which 
had just been completed, by which the United States 
contained over seventeen millions of people — being a 
gain of thirty-three and a half per centum, or about one- 
third, over the preceding ten years. It must be borne in 

1842. ^^^^ ^^^^ *^^s g^i'^ "^^s made during all the financial 
troubles of the country. This Congress also passed a 

riif bill, new tariff law, and provided for the publication of Lieuten- 
ant Wilkes's account of the Exploring Expedition, which 
had returned, after a three years' cruise, with 500 sketches 



MR. WEBSTER AND THE ENGLISH TREATY. 413 

of natural scenery, 200 portraits, and 2000 specimens of pk- vit. 
birds, beside a great quantity of shells, fishes, animals, ch. 4. 
insects, &c., — which collection furnishes an excellent a. d. 
foundation for a national museum. 1842. 

The great event of 1842 was an important treaty with Treaty 
England, negotiated with Lord Ashburton by Mr. Web- ^^^ 
ster (August 20th), which settled the question of the land. 
North-eastern Boundary, and which prevented hostilities 
with that nation, which, of all powers, should be the last 
for the United States to encounter in war. Amid the 
wrecks of liberty in Europe and the triumphs of absolut- 
ism on the Continent, it behooves our government to ex- 
tend a sympathizing arm to England — the only country 
in Europe where liberty is enjoyed, and our sister by the 
ties of blood, as well as our best friend from kindred lan- 
guage, literature, and religion. Mr. Webster was much 
aided in effecting this memorable treaty by the judicious 
and magnanimous course pursued by General Scott, amid 
the excited people of Maine, and who, but for his concili- 
atory course, might have been involved in hostilities be- 
fore the treaty could be made. The general who conquers 
on the field of battle is great ; but greater is that general 
who foregoes the acquisition of military laurels in the 
disinterested desire for national peace. 

Mr. Webster, soon after he had effected this great Retire- 
treaty and saved the nation from war, retired from the SrAVeb- 
post he had so gloriously filled, and Mr. Upshur received ®**'"" 
in his stead the portfolio of the State Department. But 
Mr. Upshur retained the seal of office only a short time, 
being accidentally killed, with Mr. Gilmer, Secretary of 
War, by the bursting of a large gun on the steam-frigate 
Princeton. John C. Calhoun then became Secretary of 
State, and a complete change of measures from those with 
which the administration started, ensued. He sisrnod 
35* 



414 THE INSURRECTION IN RHODE ISLAND. 

bk. tit. a treaty of annexation between the United States and 
Ch. 4. Texas, which treaty the Senate did not confirm. It con- 
A. D. firmed, however, an important treaty which he made with 
1843 China. 
^ The last session of the twenty-seventh Congress repealed 

* the bankrupt law, which had been perverted and abused, 
and by which creditors had been despoiled of their pro- 
perty. 
The The administration of Mr. Tyler was marked by do- 

Iruhide mestic troubles in Rhode Island, from an attempt of 
Island, certain disafiiected people to set aside the State constitu- 
tion. A convention was accordingly called by these peo- 
ple, on their own responsibility, to draft a new constitu- 
tion, in which universal suffrage should be instituted. 
The convention assembled in the autumn of 1841, and 
adopted a constitution, and submitted it to the people for 
ratification. The whole proceedings being illegal, inas- 
much as the legislature alone could authorize the governor 
to call such a convention, the people who were friends 
to law and order refused to vote j and the constitution, 
which had been adopted by 14,000 people, was declared 
treasonable by the governor's proclamation. This did 
not silence the disorganizers. Thomas W. Dorr, elected 
governor by their votes, attempted to seize the arsenal, 
and to defend his position by an appeal to arms. He 
gathered around him about 1000 men, of desperate cha- 
racter, who however dispersed on the appearance of the 
real governor, with 7000 men. Dorr fled, and $1000 
were offered for his apprehension. After leading a fugitive 
life for a while, he surrendered himself to the government, 
from which he received more leniency than his crime de- 
Tmpri' served. He was tried for treason, found guilty, and sen- 
eonment tenccd to the penitentiary ; but, on taking the oath of 
allegiance, he was released (July, 1845). 



ADMISSION OF TEXAS. 415 

Disturbances, nearly contemporaneous, took place in bk. vn. 
Albany and Rensselaer counties, in the State of New ch. 4. 
York, from the unwillingness of the tenantry to pay their a. d. 
rents to the patroon at Albany. It was regarded by these 1843 
tenants, who occupied lands which had been anciently gj^. 
granted to the Van Rensselaer family, and for which they 
paid a small annual sum, that these rents, however small, ^^^^^^ 
were a relic of feudal institutions. In the attempt to col- Anti- 
lect them serious opposition was made, and the disturb- 
ances extended to the Livingston manor, in Columbia 
county. So violent has been the resistance to the law, 
that the tenantry have virtually carried their point, on 
account of the sympathy of the more democratic portion 
of the community. 

By far the most important event of this administration, Admia- 
if viewed in its ultimate results, was the admission of ^^^"^ "^ 
Texas into the Union (February 23d, 1845). The Tex- 
ans had secured their independence chiefly through the 
military successes of General Houston, who defeated the 
Mexicans at the battle of San Jacinto, and took Santa 
Anna himself, the president of Mexico, a prisoner. After 
independence from Mexico was secured, Texas made re- 
peated overtures to be received into the Union, which 
were objected to by General Jackson and Mr. Van Buren, 
on the ground of the peaceful relations with Mexico. 
But a stronger opposition existed in the minds of the 
northern members of Congress, on account of the exten- 
sion of slave territory and the practical endorsement of 
slavery by the United States. But the recommendation 
of President Tyler had the fortune to be approved by a 
• majority of Congress, including nearly all the southern 
members, and Texas, with a territory from which four 
new slave States might be formed, was admitted into the 
Union. The Mexican war was the result of this act. 



416 ELECTION or JAMES K. POLK. 

bk. vil In May, 1844, two important conventions were held 
Ch. 4. in Baltimore, to nominate candidates for the presidency. 
j^ jy Henry Clay was nominated by the Whigs, and James K. 
1844. Polk by the democratic party. 

Presi- No man, in the political annals of this nation, has 

dentiai gxcitcd such general admiration as Clay, or has been 

election. 

favoured with more enthusiastic friends ; but he had his 
enemies also, and was committed to measures which were 
not universally popular. Hence, the illustrious pacifi- 
cator lost his election. James K. Polk, who had been 
Speaker of the House of Representatives, became Presi- 
dent of the United States, 4th of March, 1845. 



CHAPTER V. 

ADMINISTRATION OF PEESIDENT POLK. 

James K. Polk was inducted into his high office on bk. vn. 



the 4th of March, 1845 ; and his party, which has had ch. 5. 
the ascendency, with few brief intervals, since the retire- ^ jj 
ment of the elder Adams, had full scope to prosecute its 1845. 
measures. 

He selected for his cabinet, James Buchanan, of Penn- The 
sylvania, as Secretary of State ; Robert J. Walker, of '^^ "^® ' 
Mississippi, Secretary of the Treasury ; William L. Marcy, 
of New York, Secretary of War; Greorge Bancroft, of 
Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy; Cave Johnson, 
of Tennessee, Postmaster-General ; and John Y. Mason, 
of Virginia, Attorney-General. 

Nothing important of a national character, except a 
threatened invasion of Texas by Mexico, transpired pre- 
vious to the meeting, in December, of the twenty-ninth 
Congress. 

By the battle of San Jacinto, Texas had won her in- inde- 
dependence, and her separate nationality was acknow- l^'^f 
ledged by the United States, as well as by other govern- Texas, 
ments. In the exercise of the right which this independ- 
ence secured, she sought a union with the United States. 
This right was undoubted, whatever may have been the 
course of her citizens to secure independence, or what- 
ever may have been their motives in seceding from a 
State which did not recognise the institution of slavery. 

(417) 



418 DIFFICULTIES WITH MEXICO. 

bk. yii. When Texas signified its willingness to become a mem- 
Ch. 5. ber of the American confederacy, after its annexation had 
A. D. heen voted by the twenty-eighth Congress, Mexico re- 

1845. called her minister, and made preparations to appeal to 
arms. Anticipating these troubles, the United States 
gorernment sent a military force into Texas, and also a 
squadron into the G-ulf of Mexico. 

In the mean time negotiations were opened, both to 

avert hostilities and to settle the boundary between Texas 

and Mexico. With respect to Texas, the question was 

the Rio Grande, as the proper boundary. With Mexico, 

EcfuKai the whole of Texas itself was at issue. Mexico, intent 

CO to ne- upon recovcring her province, or quarrelling with the 

gotiate. United States, refused to treat, unless our ships were 

withdrawn from her coasts and our troops from her soil. 
Meeting ^^^'^ "^^^ ^^^ ^^^*^ ^^ things, a quasi war, when Con- 
of Con- gress assembled. One of its first measures was the con- 
^^^^^' summation of the annexation of Texas, which was declared 
to be one of the United States of America, on equal foot- 
ing with the rest. But the subject which most deeply 

1846. engaged Congress was in reference to the tarifi". The 
tariff-law of 1842 was repealed, and a lower scale of duties 
substituted, much to the detriment of manufacturers, 
especially of iron. 

Troops The attention of Congress however was soon recalled 
ordered t^ the difficulties with Mexico. General Taylor, who 

to the , . 

Rio commanded the American troops at Corpus Christi, had 
^^^ ^' been ordered by the Secretary of War to the Kio Grande, 
the disputed boundary; and, in April, 1846, the little 
army under his command was encamped upon its banks. 
The design of this movement was to induce Mexico to 
negotiate, or to precipitate hostilities. But the people 
of Mexico could only be pacified by an appeal to ai-ms, 

^ and they were only to be awakened to a sense of their 



COMMENCEMENT OF THE MEXICAN WAR. 419 

inferiority, or of their duties, by the sad experience of bk. \u. 
defeat and dismemberment. cii. 5. 

General Taylor, in the latter part of April, occupied a a. d. 
menacing position opposite Matamoras, after having 'built 1846. 
a fort at Point Isabel, which was made his main depot, nostm- 
A body of Mexicans, meanwhile, was encamped on the ^'' -^ 
west bank of the river, to watch the movements of Gene- eued. 
ral Taylor. These were under the command of General 
Arista, and were among the best troops in the Mexican 
service. 

On the 24th of April, Captain Thornton, with sixty- capture 
three draojoons, was sent up the river to reconnoitre ; but ''^ 

, •' Thorn- 

be fell into an ambuscade, and was compelled to surren- ton's 

der to a superior force, after sixteen had been killed or ^^ ^' 

wounded. 

The capture of this party left no doubt of the hostile 
intentions of Mexico, and General Taylor immediately 
made a requisition for 5000 troops ; however, before these 
could arrive, the campaign was fairly opened by the bril- 
liant action of Palo Alto. 

In the latter part of April, the Mexicans crossed the jrexi- 
Rio Grande, with a view to occupy the ground between H^^^^ 
Point Isabel and the station which General Taylor occu- Kio 
pied, and thus to cut ofiF his communication. But Gene- ^^ ^' 
ral Taylor, on the first of May, left a detachment of his 
troops with Major Brown to defend the river- fort, which 
afterwards bore his name, and marched with his main 
body toward Point Isabel, in order to secure free access 
to his depot. He, however, encountered no Mexican ene- 
mies. On the 7th of May, having secured his object, he 
commenced his return to Fort Brown. 

This return to the river the Mexican general deter- ^attia 
mined to prevent, and hence concentrated his troops, liui!" 
nearly 6000 in number, at Palo Alto, directly across the 



420 DECLARATION OF WAR BY CONGRESS.'' 

bk. yii. road over which Taylor was to march. Here occurred, 
Ch. 5. on the 8th of May, the first battle of consequence in the 
A. D. "^ar, in which the Americans overcame a body of well- 
1846. posted troops, nearly double their own number, and with 
the loss of only 55 killed and wounded, while the enemy 
had 200 killed and 400 wounded. 
Battle of The next day another still more bloody fight occurred 
^^^' at a ravine, called Resaca, in which the Mexicans were 
totally routed, with great loss, and the capture of General 
La Vega, together with General Arista's papers and mili- 
tary stores. In this action, where 39 Americans were 
killed and 83 wounded, the light artillery did great ser- 
vice under Lieutenant Ridgely. The dragoons, under 
Captain May, also distinguished themselves. 
Retreat Thcsc brilliant victories resulted in the retreat of the 
Mexi- Mexicans across the Rio Grande, and in the occupation 
cans. of Matamoras by General Taylor. It was now resolved 
upon, both by the government at Washington and Gene- 
ral Taylor, to follow up these successes by an invasion 
of the enemy's territory, and by the attack on Monterey, 
the capital of New Leon, and the first position of strength 
on the highway to Mexico, as well as the key to all the 
northern provinces. 
The con- Cougrcss, meanwhile, had declared war with Mexico, 
quest of and voted to raise ten millions of dollars and 50,000 men. 

Mexico ^ . 

contem- Great Vigour was shown by the government in transport- 
P'^^- jng troops to the Rio Grande, the base of military opera- 
tions, although the means of forwarding them after their 
disembarkation were not sufficiently considered. By the 
middle of August, General Taylor found himself at the 
head of a considerable force, composed chiefly of volun- 
teers, all burning with eagerness to enter ^' the Halls of 
the Montezumas." 

With all invading armies the means of subsistence 



BATTLE OF MONTEREY. 421 

becomes the controlling question. Without sufficient at- bk. vit. 
tcntion to the commissariat, Napoleon's generals suffered Ch. 6. 
great disasters in Spain, and he himself was cut off in a_ d, 
Russia — this was his blunder. General Taylor disco- 1846. 
vered that only about 6000 men could be subsisted in 
the country around Monterey; nor had he the means of 
transporting a larger force. 

Accordingly, with about 6000 men, he commenced his Advance 
march to Monterey, on the 20th of August, leaving 2000 ^^^^. 
behind, under General Patterson, to garrison Camargo, cane. 
his main depot on the Rio Grande. On the 19th of 
September, he arrived within three miles of Monterey, 
defended by fortifications of immense strength, and addi- 
tionally protected by forts erected outside of the city, on 
the two imposing heights of Independence and Federation. 
The possession of these works, called the Bishop's Palace 
and Fort Soldado, made certain the reduction of the city. 

On the 20th, General Worth, with a division of the Battle of 
army, was put in movement, to storm these heights, while ^^^^^ 
the remainder of the army was displayed on the eastern 
or opposite side of the city, to distract the enemy's 
attention. 

The gallant stormers of Fort Soldado, under Colonel 
P. E. Smith and Captain C. F. Smith, effected their 
object, and possessed the heights of Federation; while 
Generals Twiggs and Butler attacked the city itself, and 
forced an entrance, though with great loss of life — 394 
being killed and wounded. This severe conflict withdrew 
attention from General Worth, who followed up his suc- 
cess, on the 22d, by storming the Bishop's Palace, which 
had been considered impregnable. 

The Mexicans now withdrew from their outer defences, 
and occupied the cathedral and the main plaza, while the 
Americans made preparations to attack them, and gradu- 
36 



CAPITULATION OF MONTEREY. 423 

ally advanced, amid dreadful encounters, till within one bk. vii. 
square of the principal plaza, where the enemy was con- Ch. 5. 
centrated. General Taylor then withdrew his troops to ^ j, 
the edge of the city, to concert with General Worth for a 1846. 
renewed attack on the following day. 

On the morning of the 24th, General Ampudia, who Capitu- 
commanded the Mexicans, submitted a proposition to Mont©-° 
capitulate, which was agreed upon, and the city, with its ^^y- 
military stores, fell into the hands of the Americans — 
the garrison, which had been 10,000, being permitted to 
march out with the honours of war, retaining their arms 
and six pieces of cannon. An armistice of eight weeks 
was also agreed upon. 

Monterey now became the head-quarters of General 
Taylor, while SaLtillo and Panas were respectively occu- 
pied by Generals Worth and Wool, with large detach- 
ments of the army. 

A change of administration now occurred in Mexico, Sanf« 
and Santa Anna, the ablest of all the Mexican generals, recalled. 
was recalled from Cuba and placed at the head of affairs. 
By indefatigable exertions, he raised an army of 20,000 
men, concentrated them at San Louis Potosi, and strongly 
fortified his position. 

General Taylor, who had left Monterey, in the early Taylor's 
part of December, for the interior, soon perceived that a ^°^^ ^^^ 
larger force would be necessary, to attack San Louis Po- 
tosi, than what could be easily pushed forward. He ac- 
cordingly came to the opinion that the advance should 
be abandoned, a defensive line occupied, and the decisive 
blow struck against the capital from the neighbourhood 
of Vera Cruz. 

It so happened that the government was of the same 
opinion, through the suggestions of General Scott, who 
convinced Secretary Marcy, in an able communication, 



424 GENERAL SCOTT SENT TO VERA CRUZ. 

bk. VII. that a vigorous march from Vera Cruz upon the city of 
Ch. 5. Mexico would alone compel the Mexicans to sue for peace. 
A. D. -^s early, however, as the 22d of October, an expedition 
1846. against Vera Cruz was resolved upon, though without any 
Plan of ulterior purpose than the reduction of the city. To the 
the in- genius of General Scott the country is indebted for the 

vasion. ^ in -i i • i -nr • 

magnificent plan of strategy by which Mexico was ^b- 
dued. He proposed first to capture Vera Cruz, and then 
to advance on the capital in two columns : one, of 10,000, 
from Monterey, and the other, of 20,000, from Vera Cruz 
By this it was shown that, if Santa Anna remained at 
San Louis Potosi to oppose General Taylor, General Scott 
could then advance unresisted to the capital ; or, if he 
detached to oppose Scott, then Taylor could advance upon 
San Louis Potosi. 

The plan, however, was only partially adopted. It was 
settled that Scott should attack Vera Cruz, and then ad- 
vance upon Mexico, while Taylor should maintain the 
defensive. 
Scott General Taylor's effective force now amounted to 

thediief 16,000 men, 4000 less than was supposed, from which 

**™" General Scott, now sent to take the chief command, de- 
mand. \ ^ 

tached 9000, in order to invest Vera Cruz, and advised 
Taylor to retire to Monterey. 

Had Taylor, with his reduced force, retired to Monte- 
rey, it would have been considered by the enemy as a 
defeat ; but he resolved to hold on to the position which 
he then occupied, in advance of Saltillo. \ 

If he had then commanded the army, before so large a 
body was detached, with sufficient means of transporta- 
tion, the great battle of the war would have been fought 
under the walls of San Louis Potosi, and Mexico entered 
from that side. But with 7 or 8000 men he could not 
act on the offensive. 



EXPEDITION ORGANIZED. 425 

Taylor did the best his means and circumstances per- Bk. tit. 
mitted. He maintained a bold position, at the edge of Ch. 5. 
the desert in advance of Saltillo, and thus invited an at- ^^ d, 
tack from the Mexican general, whose army, the best that 1846 

Mexico ever saw, was defeated, demoralized, and reduced *o 

1847 
to half its numbers, and a way opened for Scott to ad- 
vance upon the capital. Had it not been for the battle 
of Buena Vista, General Scott could not have taken 
Mexico, with the forces under his command, without 
great embarrassments. 

While Taylor was thus maintaining his defensive atti- jjoye- 
tude, and Scott organizing his expedition to attack Vera meats of 
Cruz, Santa Anna came in possession of General Scott's 
despatches, and immediately resolved upon his measures, 
which, it must be conceded, were bold and grand — 
they were, to attack Taylor with his whole force, and 
then turn and crush Scott on his march to Mexico. 

But it was the misfortune of Santa Anna to be beaten santa 
where he expected an easy victory. Buena Vista was ^^^^ 
won by skill and fortune. General Taylor occupied, for cesupon 
several weeks, a bold attitude at Agua Nueva, where he ^^ °^' 
refreshed his troops, under 5000 in number, and imparted 
to them additional discipline. Upon this position Santa 
Anna advanced, with 20,000 men, on the 21st of Febru- 
ary, 1847. Taylor hastily abandoned his camp, in order 
to lure the Mexicans to an unprepared attack, and by 
troops exhausted by fifty miles of continuous marching, 
and still suffering from hunger and thirst. Santa Anna, 
believing that the Americans were flying in dismay, 
eagerly pursued, until he was drawn into a mountain 
gorge, where alone a victory could be gained by the 
Americans, and where alone their commander was deter 
mined to fight. 

This position had been chosen by General Wool, and 
86* 



BATTLE OP BUENA VISTA. 427 

adopted by General Taylor. On the morning of the 22d ^k- ^'H- 
of February, the birth-day of Washington, the battle com- Ch. 5. 
menced, and was fought with desperate valour during that a. d. 
day, and also during the next, before fortune declared in 1847. 
favour of the Americans. Great assistance was rendered, Battro 
during this encounter, by the flying artillery, under Cap- ^^^^"''^ 
tain Bragg. Both officers and men greatly distinguished 
themselves, but none so much as the intrepid commander, 
without whose ability the Americans would probably 
have been overpowered by superior numbers. The Mexi- 
can loss was over 2000 in killed and wounded, beside 3000 
deserters. The American loss was 267 killed and 456 
wounded. 

Santa Anna still had 15,000 men left, after this deci- Retreat 
sive battle, but he was without money and without de- ^l^^^^^ 
pots, and, in addition, a revolution was springing up in 
the capital of Mexico; he was, therefore, compelled to 
retreat towards San Louis Potosi, while General Taylor 
advanced to Agua Nueva. 

While these splendid successes had been gained by Scottoi^ 
General Taylor, General Scott was organizing his own ^i"'^"^ 
expedition, and, early in March, landed in the vicinity of troops. 
Vera Cruz, and invested that city. General Scott, in his 
communication to the Secretary of War, deemed that 
20,000 men were necessary to capture Vera Cruz and 
advance upon Mexico. But he had only 12,000 men 
when, on the 28th of February, at Lobos, he organized 
his forces — with these he advanced to Vera Cruz. 

It was the subject of deliberation with the illustrious Move- 
commander-in-chief, whether he would take the city by ^^^^l 
siege or by assault. Either course was practicable. The J,®^* 
former would require science ; the latter, desperate cou- 
rage. By the former course fewer lives would be lost; 
by the latter, greater eclat would be gained. To his 




''<iii!!liiii«^i:ll^|Jpi:iiiiiii:iii!i!!i;iiiiiiilii:j;iii!Ha^^^ 



CAPTURE OF VERA CRUZ. 429 

honour, the considerations of humanity weighed more Bk. vn. 
than those of glory — for, in war, the more lives that are Ch. 5. 
lost, and the more desperate an action, the more imprcs- ^ p 
sive is the victory in the eyes of the great mass of the 1847. 
people. 

The investment of the city, which contained about siege of 
15,000 inhabitants and was defended by a respectable c^uz. 
garrison, commenced on the 10th of March. The bat- 
teries were planted with great judgment, about 900 yards 
from the city. But the works were frequently destroyed 
by the heavy northers, and the troops suffered much from 
excessive labour. Oq the 2'2d of March, the investment 
was completed, and General Scott summoned the city to 
surrender. General Morales, who commanded both the 
city and the castle of San Juan de Ulloa, a strong fortress 
in front of the city, peremptorily refused, and the bom- 
bardment commenced, both from the American batteries 
and from the ships in the harbour. On the 29th, the Surren- 
surrender of the city and castle was made, and the Ame- the city, 
rican flag was planted on the enemy's works. 

Thus was this important place taken by the American 
commander, with only the inconsiderable loss of 65 men 
killed and wounded, and a secure base formed for military 
operations in the interior. Had the city been taken by 
assault, more than 2000 persons would probably have 
fallen, beside the great loss of life in the city itself. 

Meanwhile, the news reached the camp of General Scott 
Scott of the brilliant victory at Buena Vista and the ^^^^^^ 
retirement of Santa Anna upon San Louis Potosi. As vanceon 
the sickly season was fast approaching, and as he wished 
to anticipate the enemy, in gaining healthy positions on 
the first mountain barriers, General Scott resolved to 
commence the march to the city of Mexico. As soon as 
means of transportation could be collected, they were put 




PLAN OF THE BATTLES OF MEXICO. 
Ou the 19tli aud 20th of May, and the 8th, 12th, and 13th September, 1847. 



MARCH TO MEXICO. 431 

in motion. General Twiggs, with his division, was sent BK.fvn. 
on in advance. Ch. 5. 

He had not expected opposition. On the 12th of April, ^^ d^ 
he found himself before the enemy, consisting of 13,000 1847. 
men, under Santa Anna himself, strongly posted at Cerro com- 
Gordo, a conical hill, which towered above the heights «i<^°<^e- 

' ' ^ ° ment 

and forests of the surrounding country. General Scott of the 
had received intelligence of the proximity of the enemy ^^^'^ 
on the 11th, and the next day started in person to join 
General Twiggs. General Worth's division marched on 
the 13th. 

The enemy was well supplied with water and other Battle of 
necessaries, and hoped to present an obstacle to the fur- Gordo, 
ther advance of the Americans, until the yellow fever 
had wasted their ranks. But General Scott, perceiving 
the necessity of an immediate advance, resolved to storm 
the heights. On the 18th of April, the attack com- 
menced, and was completely successful. The Mexicans 
fled, and Santa Anna himself, with great difficulty, ef- 
fected his escape on the wheel-mule of his carriage. The 
American forces were 9000, and their loss in killed and 
wounded, was 481. The enemy was completely dispersed, 
and lost all his artiller}'. The loss, in killed and wounded, 
was 700, beside 3000 prisoners, including five generals. 

This battle was followed by the rapid occupation of 
Jalapa and Perote, and the invaders advanced to Puebla, 
on the great road to Mexico, and, on the 15th of May, 
took possession of that city. Santa Anna himself returned Santa 
to Mexico, to defend the city of Montezuma from the Ame- niea- 
rican invaders. He found it in a state of anarchy. The 
violence of faction, and the decline of his own popularity, 
prevented him from rallying, to the extent desired, his 
beaten and scattered forces. But, being still possessed 
of extraordinary powers, he seized and confined the most 



Rures. 



432 FORTIFICATIONS OF MEXICO. 

Be. VII. turbulent chieftains and the generals most unfriendly to 
Ch. 5. him. He then sent in to the Mexican Congress his re- 
A. D. signation, which was neither accepted nor rejected. No 
1847. action being taken upon it, and the public affairs being 
Prepara- ^^rj Critical, he withdrew it, and virtually became dicta- 
tions for ^Qj.. If any one could save the capital, it was he, and 

the de- , , . . n i 

fence of hc cxcrtcd his utmost energies to collect troops and 

Mexico, gtrengthen his defences; and such were his efforts that, 

by the end of July, he had under his command, around 

Mexico, according to Mexican accounts, 36,000 men and 

100 pieces of artillery. 

Meanwhile, his preparations for the last stand of re- 
sistance were closely watched by the American comman- 
der at Puebla. In order to increase his strength, he 
gave orders to abandon Jalapa, while a new accession to 
his forces was made by the arrival of General Pillow, on 
the 8th of July, thus increasing his troops to 10,276, of 
all arms, although over 2000 remained upon the sick-list. 
On the 6th of August, his army was further increased by 
a force of 2429 men under General Pierce. 
Advance During this pause at Puebla, General Scott collected 
upon all the information in his power respecting the different 
Mexico, routes to the capital. On the 7th of August, Harney's 
cavalry and Twiggs's division marched towards Mexico, 
followed, the next day, by Quitman's volunteers, and, on 
the 9th, by Worth's division; while the remainder of the 
troops marched on the 10th, General Pillow's composing 
the rear. No opposition was made by the enemy, and, 
on the 10th of August, the advanced guard entered the 
Valley of Mexico. 

A system of active reconnoissance was now commenced, 
and the different routes were closely observed. After 
much deliberation, the road round Lake Chalco, south- 
east of Mexico, was decided upon. The most direct route 



BATTLES OF CONTRERAS AND CHURUBUSCO. 433 

to the city was defended by El Penon, a fortress seven bk. yit. 
and a half miles distant, and deemed impregnable, al- Ch. 5. 
though that fortress might be avoided by a detour to a. d. 
Mexicalcingo, another strong position, a few miles south- 1847. 
west of it, and still nearer the capital. But the daring 
and skilful reconnoissance of the Chalco route, by Colonel 
Duncan, removed all doubt, and, on the 15th of August, 
the march was commenced. 

So soon as Santa Anna was apprised of the fact that 
General Scott was advancing south of Lake Chalco, he 
withdrew most of his troops from El Penon and Mexi- 
calcingo, and fortified San Antonio and Churubusco, about 
four miles from the city, determining to make a strong 
defence at these points. 

On the 17th of August, Worth, in advancing, seized 
San Augustin, about twelve miles from the city, from 
which reconnoitring officers examined the position of the 
enemy, and which became the key of operations. 

On the 19th and 20th of August was fought the battle Battle of 
of Contreras, which resulted in the destruction of the ^^^ 
veteran division of General Yalentia, who had been posted 
on the road to San Angel, to dispute the passage over the 
Pedregal, a vast field of lava, and entirely impracticable 
for cavalry or artillery, except by a single mule-path. 
The loss of the Mexicans could not have been less than 
2000 in killed and wounded; four general officers were 
taken prisoners, and the whole train of artillery, with 
heavy stores of ammunition, fell into the hands of the 
victors. Not more than 60 Americans were killed and 
wounded. 

A vigorous pursuit of the flying enemy was made, and Battle of 
the advance brigade of the veteran division of Twiggs 
brought up at the post where Santa Anna had concen- 
trated his forces, and the terrible conflict of Churubusco 
37 



Churu- 
busco. 



BATTLE OP MOLINO DEL REY. 435 

commenced. The Americans suffered severely, 1000 of bk. vii. 
our bravest troops having fallen in that desperate encoun- Ch. 5. 
ter. But the Mexican loss was dreadful. It is supposed a. d. 
that 7000 were either killed or wounded. The panic was ISIT. 
extreme, and Mexico was at the mercy of the conquerors. 

The consequence of this decisive victory, which gave 
the most incontestible evidence of General Scott's energy 
and capacity, as well as the bravery of his subordinate 
generals, was, that an armistice was agreed upon, for the 
purpose of negotiating a peace. 

The commander-in-chief has been censured for this Armi- 
armistice, but it reflected immortal honour upon him, ^g^ed 
showing his great moderation in the midst of victory, "poi^- 
and his earnest desire to avoid an unnecessary waste of 
life. But this armistice proved of no avail, and termi- 
nated on the 7th of September. At its conclusion, the 
effective force of the Americans amounted only to 8500. 

On the 8th of September was fought the battle of Mo- Battle of 
lino del Key, near the castle of Chapultepec, with a view ^J p^y^ 
of breaking up a foundry for cannon. The assault was 
committed to General Worth, and was gallantly performed. 
The place was taken, and the enemy fell back into the 
grove of Chapultepec, but were not pursued. This action 
was the most severely contested of the whole war. The 
force engaged was less than 4000, but of these 789 were 
either killed or wounded. The forces of the enemy were 
10,000. No decisive results, however, followed this action. 

The American commander now directed the whole force Scott 
of his genius to the reduction of the city of Mexico, into [^^^^^s^"^ 
which the greater part of the defeated forces had retired, f'^"'* 

mi • 1 .1 Mexico. 

Ihe reconnoissances upon the enemy s works were com- 
menced on the 10th, and were pushed over the two main 
causeways which led to the city from the south, the most 
important of which was San Antonio, from which the 



436 CAPTURE OF MEXICO. 

^^- "^1^- Mexican generals anticipated the final assault upon the 
Ch- 5. city. 

A. D. But Scott resolved to begin with Chapultepec, a rock 

18-47. which rose 150 feet from the plain, and which was strongly 

storm- defended, not only by important works, but also by a large 

Chapui- gai^i"isoii; under the command of Don Nicolas Bravo, one 

tepee, of the most celebrated of the Mexican leaders. On the 

12th, the batteries were opened on this strong fortress ; 

but the cannonade and bombardment not effecting much, 

the storming of it was ordered. This took place on the 

following day, and the assault was entrusted to General 

Pillow. After an hour of fierce contest, the American 

flag floated on the highest points of the castle, and the 

western defence of Mexico was in the possession of the 

Americans. 

Fall of Generals Worth and Quitman pursued the flying enemy 

Mexico, ^^gj. ^j^g causeways, and before night succeeded in seizing 

the western gates and advancing a considerable way into 

the wty. Santa Anna, during the night of the 14th, 

withdrew his troops, and the next morning the main plaza 

and the national palace were occupied by the American 

generals. Both the city and the valley of Mexico were 

now in undisputed possession by our troops. 

The strength of the American forces which were en- 
gaged during these final operations did not exceed 6800 
men, and the aggregate of losses in killed and wounded 
was 863. The great dependence of the Mexicans was 
upon the castle of Chapultepec, and when this fell, all 
confidence departed from them. 
Refleo- That so Small a body of troops should have successively 
thTcon! beaten armies more than thrice their number, led by so 
ciuest. q]^\q a general as Santa Anna, and entrenched behind 
defences that were deemed impregnable, and that, finally, 
the constantly diminishing army of the invaders, at last 



MOVEMENTS OF SANTA ANNA. 437 

reduced to a handful of men, if measured with European bk. tii 
conflicts, should successfully assault the capital of a great Ch. 5. 
nation, is one of the wonders and prodigies of modern war- a. d. 
fare. Great as is the praise due to the American troops in 1847. 
general, as well as to the gallant ofl5cers who led them on Great 
to victory, the chief merit belongs to Scott and Taylor ™/gJJ^^ 
themselves, by whose transcendent coolness, firmness, and and 
judgment the great victories were won. They had the '^^ ^^' 
rare talent of grasping and weighing and understanding 
their whole field, and of directing the energies of their 
subordinates in the right channel. 

To the credit of Santa Anna, it must be said, he dis- mov©- 
puted his ground inch by inch, and fought bravely to the g^nta 
last ; but it was his misfortune to lead dispirited and en- '*-'^"^- 
ervated troops, and to contend with Americans and such 
generals as Scott and Taylor. After the reduction of 
Mexico, he established his head-quarters in the city of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo, but was without money and provi- 
sions. His last resort was to attack the communication 
of the American army, and accordingly he marched upon 
Puebla, where the campaign had been commenced ; but, 
before marching, he resigned his presidency into the hands 
of the judges of the Supreme Court of Justice, and con- 
tented himself with the subordinate power of a general. 
He arrived at Puebla on the 22d of September, which 
was defended by Colonel Childs, with only about 500 ef- 
fective men, 1800 beino' on the sick list. This city was Attacks 

, Puebla. 

already besieged by a party of guemllas, under General 
Kea, and Santa Anna's arrival was the signal for an as- 
sault, which was, at intervals, continued until the 30th of 
September, without success. It being known that an 
American force was advancing from Vera Cruz, Santa 
Anna withdrew, with 4000 men, and continued to harass 
the Americans until the 12th of October. 
37* 



438 TREATY OF PEACE WITH MEXICO. 

Bs^TiL In the mean time, General Taylor, finding that his 

Ch. o. forces in the north of Mexico, after garrisoning Saltillo, 

A. D. Monterey, Camargo, and Matamoras, were not sufiicient 

1847 to advance upon San Louis Potosi, confined himself to 

\^ defensive measures, and was in favour of sending all his 

surplus troops to the aid of General Scott. Having re- 

^^^f^^ ceived, at his own suororestion, instructions to that efi"ect, 

of Lane ^ fco ^ ? 

and he despatched Generals Lane and Gushing to Vera Cruz, 
to^Mexf- wi*^ about 2500 men. They arrived at that city on the 
^- 20th of September, and soon after marched towards 
Mexico, dispersing the various guerrilla parties to which 
the Mexicans were now reduced. On the 12th of Octo- 
ber, General Lane entered Puebla. 
Occupa- While these things were occuning, the main body of 

tionof . . -P-^T' 

Mexico, the Americans remamed at the city of Mexico, waiting 
for the new Mexican government to enter into negotia- 
tions, now that the conquest of the country was fairly 
secured. After arranging the internal affairs of the city. 
General Scott turned his attention to preserve his lines 
of communication with Vera Cruz. 

As the Mexican authorities still refused to sue for 
peace, when all hope of gaining any important advantage 
was at an end. General Scott forbid the payment of 
revenues to the Mexican government, and imposed a 
system of contributions. Mr. Trist, the American com- 
missioner, not giving satisfaction to his government, was 

Arrestof recalled ; and Generals Pillow and Worth, in consequence 

an/^ of unfortunate differences with the commander-in-chief. 

Worth, -^ere arrested. 



Treaty 



However, before the recall of Mr. Trist was known to 

of Gua- the Mexicans, a treaty was made at Guadalupe Hidalgo, 

induigo. February 2d, 1848. By this treaty the territories of 

New Mexico and Upper California were given to the 

United States^ as indemnity for the war, while Mexico 



EVACUATION OF MEXICO. 439 

released all claim to Texas. But, in consideration of these bk. vii. 
extensive grants of territory, the United States agreed to Ch. 5. 
pay fifteen millions of dollars, and assumed the debt a. d. 
which Mexico owed to her own citizens, amounting to 1848. 
nearly five millions additional. Although these negotia- 
tions were made after Mr. Trist was recalled, still they 
were ratified by both governments, and Messrs. Sevier 
and Clifi"ord were appointed commissioners. 

General Scott, in the mean while, was relieved from gcott 
his command, and General Butler succeeded him. The ^^^heved. 
government had nobly seconded General Scott in his 
measures to secure the conquest of Mexico, but, when 
this was completed, party animosities and rivalries be- 
tween the leading chieftains recommenced, with their 
usual bitterness, and efforts were made to deprive the 
illustrious commanders, and especially the commander-in- 
chief, of the glory they had earned. 

On the 12th of June, the treaty being duly ratified, ^Tacuar 
the American troops yielded up to the Mexicans their Mexico, 
capital, and commenced their march to Vera Cruz. By 
the end of July, the country was completely evacuated. 
The volunteers were discharged, and the regiments of the 
regular army disbanded, according to the laws of their 
organization. 

Thus ended one of the most brilliant series of military 
successes in these modern times, the ultimate results of 
which, for good or evil, are beyond the power of mortal 
man to anticipate. This war was the chief event in the 
administration of Mr. Polk, and this alone will render it 
ever memorable. 

Durino; this administration, however, the country was state 
in a very prosperous state, m a commercial pomt ot view, country 
The political troubles of Europe, and the distress of the 
Irish population, in consequence of the potato-rot and 



440 ELECTION OF TAYLOR. 

Bk. yii. other evils, caused an immense immigration, which again 
Ch. 5. resulted in the settlement of the Western States. Iowa 

A_ D^ and Florida were admitted in 1846, and Wisconsin in 

1848. the following year. 

Election ^^ Juue, 1848, was held a great Whig convention, in 

of Tay- Philadelphia, which nominated General Taylor for Presi- 
dent and Millard Fillmore for Vice-President. The hero 
of the Mexican war was chosen by a considerable ma- 
jority. On the 4th of March, 1849, President Polk 

PoP-th of retired to private life, but survived his retirement only a 

^'''^- few months. He died, June 15th, 1849. 



CHAPTER VI. 

ADMINISTRATION OF GENERAL TAYLOR. 

On the inauguration of President Taylor, March 4th, ^^- "^H- 

1849, he made choice of John M. Clayton, of Delaware, Ch. 6. 
for Secretary of State ; William M. Meredith, of Pennsyl- a. d. 
vania, Secretary of the Treasury; George W. Crawford, 1849. 
of Georgia, Secretary of War; W. B. Preston, of Vir- Tayior'a 
ginia, Secretary of the Navy ; Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, ^''^^'"'*- 
Secretary of the Interior; Jacob Collamer, of Vermont, 
Postmaster-General ; and Reverdy Johnson, of Maryland, 
Attorney-General. 

The thirty-first Congress assembled in December, but 
no acts of great historical importance were passed until 
late in the session. An act providing for the taking of 
the new census was passed, 23d of May, 1850, and also 1850. 
for a new apportionment of the House of Representatives, census, 
which, after 1853, shall consist of two hundred and 
thirty-four members. 

California was admitted into the Union, September 9th, caiifor- 

1850, its gold mines having led to an unexampled increase ^^^^^ 
of population ; and the city of San Francisco arose, as by 
magic, on the shores of the Pacific, as the future metro- 
polis of the extreme western section of the nation. An 

act also passed, at the same time, establishing a territorial 
government in Utah. 

(441) 



Blave 
law. 



442 DEATH OF PRESIDENT TAYLOR. 

bk. tii. But the most agitating law of the session was the act 
ch. 6. respecting fugitive slaves, by which they might be re- 
^ J) claimed by their masters under the authority of special 
1850. commissioners and with the aid of the United States mar- 
FugitiTe shals. This act produced great excitement throughout 
the Union, and was the occasion of threatening debates 
and the severest animadversion from a powerful party. It 
passed September 18th, and put a stop, for the present, 
to anti-slavery agitation in Congress. 
Death of The year 1850 was signalized by the death of John C. 
°"^ Calhoun, who expired in Washington, on the 31st of 
March, after a brilliant career as a statesman, and after 
having held some of the highest oflSces in the land, win- 
ning from all classes admiration for his talents and respect 
for his private worth. 
Death of On the 9th of July, the nation was called to mourn 
^^ ^^' the death of the patriotic President, whom the gratitude 
and admiration of the people had raised to the most ex- 
alted office in their gift. The death of General Taylor 
was felt as a great national calamity ; but the time had 
come when the loss of no statesman or President, how- 
ever eminent, could materially affect the destiny of the 
nation. 
Acces- By his death, the administration of affairs devolved on 
Fillmore the Vicc-Presidcnt, who fortunately possessed the confi- 
dence of the country, and under whose auspices the nation 
has been still more rapidly advancing in wealth and poli- 
tical importance. 

With the accession of Millard Fillmore the old cabinet 
resigned, and a new one was appointed, at the head of 
which, as Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, assumed 
the post for which he was so well fitted, and the Senate 
lost the services of its greatest ornajnent. 

At this point, we close our brief history, regretting 



STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 443 

that our narrow limits prevent allusion to those passing bk. vn. 
events which are to be chronicled by future historians. Ch. 6. 
Nor has it been the aim of the author to allude to any a. d. 
events in the administration of the latter Presidents ex- 1851. 
cept such as are of great historical importance. 



STATE OF THE COUNTRY ON THE ACCESSION OP 
PRESIDENT FILLMORE. 

On the accession of President Fillmore the country Prospe- 
was in a state of unexampled prosperity, and was rapidly JJ^J ° 
advancing to be the first power upon earth. country. 

The United Confederacy, in the year 1851, numbered Extent 
thirty-one independent States and four Territories, beside union, 
the District of Columbia, eighteen of which had been 
added since the formation of the Federal Government. 

The military force to govern and protect so great an Military 
extent of territory, from Maine to Florida, and from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific, has been proved to be adequate 
to the wants of the nation, although it numbers but little 
over 10,000 men, chiefly stationed at posts remote from 
the centre of civilization. 

The navy is small, compared with the mercantile power Naval 
and wealth of the country and with the maritime nations ^^^' 
of Europe, being composed of twelve ships of the line, 
fifteen frigates, twenty-one sloops of war, four brigs, three 
schooners, five steam-frigates, and fifteen smaller steamers. 

The shipping in the merchant -service amounts to ship- 
1,585,711 tons. During the year 1851, over eight ^'°°' 
thousand American vessels cleared for foreign countries, 
containing over one hundred thousand seamen. 

The productions of the country have constantly in- 



444 STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 

bk. vii. creased with its extending limits. During the year 
Ch. 6. which closed the last half century, the exports and im- 
A. D. poi'ts each amounted to $136;946,912. 
1851. The population, according to the last census, numbered 
Popuia- 20,087,909 free persons, and 3,179,589 slaves, 
tion. With the increase of population and wealth, physical 

Internal improvements have received an impulse. Kailroads con- 
improve- '■ 

ments. ncct the different States, and afford facilities for transpor- 
tation from the Mississippi to the Atlantic Ocean. Ca- 
nals connect the Father of Waters with the great lakes 
and the ocean. Emigrants find employment in works of 
art and in the cultivation of the soil, 
uon^*" Colleges and the higher seminaries are established in 
every State, and schools in all our villages. In 1851, 
there were one hundred and twenty colleges and eight 
thousand students. The professions are supported ; reli- 
gion is respected ; toleration prevails ; and the laws are 
enforced. 

This country has been blessed with the smiles and pro- 
tection of an overruling Providence. If the people are 
faithful to the cause entrusted to their keeping, they will 
become a most powerful nation; but if they disregard 
their privileges, and suffer the vices to undermine their 
moral health, it will furnish confirmation of the great 
truth, so often impressed upon the world's history, that 
" pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit be- 
fore a fall." 



THE END. 



QUESTIONS 

to 

HISTOKT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



BOOK I. — CHAPTER I. 

Paoe 13. What was there peculiar to the latter part of the fifteenth 
century? What characterized the people 1 

14. What improvements took place in this period ? What of sculp- 
tors, painters, scholars, poets, philosophers, and reformers ? What, on 
the whole, made this epoch most memorable? Describe the progress 
of commercial enterprise. 

15. What was the great problem of the age, and why was it? Who 
gave the most attention to it? What were the reasons which led him 
to infer the rotundity of the earth ? What did he hope to accomplish 
by sailing west? 

16. What were the ordinary passages to India ? How was the pro- 
ject of Columbus received ? Who encouraged him ? What was the 
result? When did he discover America? 

17. How was Columbus treated on his return ? What effect had 
this treatment on him ? With what reward must great benefactors be 
content? Who realized the idea of Columbus ? What was the effect 
of Portuguese discoveries ? What was the greater result of the disco- 
very of America ? 

18. With whom does Columbus share his glory as a discoverer ? By 
whom was Cabot patronized ? What were the results of his voyages? 
Who competed with the English for the soil of America ? What French 
navigator explored the coast ? 

19. Who first availed themselves of the discovery of America? 
What sections did they seek? Who conquered Mexico? What Indian 
Prince ruled the land ? Describe his subjects. What excited the 
cupidity of the Spaniards? Describe the conquest of Peru. 

20. When was Brazil discovered, and by whom? Were Spain and 

(445) 



446 QUESTIONS TO 

Portugal enriched to the extent anticipated ? In what do true riches 
consist? Why? Were all nations equally infatuated ? What did they 
expect to find ? Under what circumstances was Florida discovered, 
and by whom 1 

21. What followed the discovery of Florida? Who was the first to 
ascend the Mississippi ? When was it discovered? What results fol- 
lowed ? What difficulties had the colonists to contend with ? What 
was the consequence ? 

CHAPTER II. i 

23. What did the early navigators find on reaching the American 
shores? What was their appearance? What were their habits? How 
far were they barbarians ? Of what were they ignorant? On what 
did they live ? 

24. What was the degree of their skill ? Mention some of their 
peculiarities. How did they treat women? What were their dispo- 
sitions ? What was the leading trait of the Indians ? How was this 
illustrated ? 

25. How did he treat friends and enemies? What were his reli- 
gious notions? What of the Great Spirit? How did he differ from 
the Germanic barbarian, in his estimate of woman ? 

26. What was the great passion of the Indian ? What was the next 
strongest passion ? To what had he an invincible antipathy ? What re- 
sulted from this trait? What was the state of the Indians on the first 
arrival of the Europeans? Who were the most powerful of the tribes? 
What other tribes did these include ? 

27. What was the second division, and what sections did they in- 
habit? What distinguished them? What was the third division? 
Who composed it ? What were their mutual relations ? What hence 
resulted ? 

CHAPTER III. 

29. Who first dreamed of colonizing America ? Who made the 
first attempt? The second? Under whose auspices? What disco- 
veries were made ? What prevented the success of the colony ? 

30. Who made the third attempt? What animated them? What 
fortunes attended them? What resulted to the colony? In whose 
reign did the English attempt colonization? What suggested it? Who 
obtained a patent, and when ? What resulted from it ? 

31. What distinguished man obtained a similar patent ? For what 
was he distinguished? What resulted from his patent? Why was 
the country called Virginia ? How did the natives treat the strangers? 
Why did they abandon the settlement? Who arrived afterwards ? 

32. What was their fortune? What happened in 1602? What 
grant did the King of France make ? What was it called ? What 



HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 447 

resulted from the expedition? How did James I. regard the move- 
ments of the French? 

33. What did James do? What resulted from his encouragement? 
What evils were not at that time appreciated ? Wherein had the pro- 
mised benefits proved delusive? What moral do we hence learn? 
What did the navigators carry back to Europe? Who first introduced 
tobacco ? Was it for better or worse ? 

BOOK II. — CHAPTER I. 

34. What makes the history of America grand and romantic? What 
examples does its colonization afford ? 

36. Wherein is it of philosophical importance ? What should be the 
aim of the historian ? What causes led to colonization ? Wherein 
were they different in different States? 

37. What was the earliest English settlement? What was the cha- 
racter of its colonists ? What the condition of England in the seven- 
teenth century? What were the conditions of the patent granted by 
the King? 

38. Wherein was the charter unfavourable to liberty? What was 
the aim of the company? Describe the band of colonists under New- 
port. Describe the voyage. 

39. Who were the first governors? What Indian chieftain received 
them hospitably ? What was the early condition of the colony ? Who 
rescued it from destruction ? 

40. What were the previous adventures of Smith ? Describe his 
capture by the Indians. What of Pocahontas ? Describe the condition 
of the colony on Smith's return? 

41. By what were they deluded? How was Smith a benefactor? 
What were some of his excellences ? How was his government viewed 
by the company in England? 

42. What was the result? Who was the first governor under the 
new charter? What was the character of the colonists who sailed 
witli him ? How did they regard Smith ? What was the result of his 
return to England ? 

43. Who succeeded Lord Delaware? What was the condition of 
the colony under him? What domestic event of interest occurred? 

44. Who was Rolfe, and whom did he marry? Describe the go- 
vernment of Dale. What oppressions were the colonists subject to? 

45. What hence resulted ? What was the character of Yeartlley's 
administration? What was the germ of popular liberty? What 
political privileges resulted? 

46. Describe the introduction of African slaves. What domestic 
calamity happened contemporaneously ■» What did the Indians resolve 
to dol Who headed them? 



448 QUESTIONS TO 

47. Who revealed the plot? Did it avert misfortune 1 When did 
the massacre happen? What resulted from it? How much were the 
colonists reduced ? 

4S. Why did James subvert the Virginia charter? How did it ope- 
rate? When did it happen? How did Charles I. manage? To whom 
did he delegate his powers? 

49. What was the character of Harvey? Who succeeded him? 
What was his administration ? What the condition of Virginia? What 
the political privileges under Berkeley? 

50. How were officers chosen ? What were the germ of aristo- 
cracy? What the germ of a plebeian population? What the influ- 
ence of slaves ? What still further increased aristocratic power ? 

51. Describe the aristocracy. What power did they grasp? How 
did they view the Restoration? What privileges did they give to 
Episcopalians? 

52. How were the royal governors enabled to maintain power ? 
What changes were made in the legislature ? How were the liberties 
of the people assailed ? Describe the growth of democracy. 

53. What were the schemes of Bacon? Why was he opposed by 
the governor? What were the Indian aggressions? 

54. What did the democracy desire? What did it demand? What 
did Bacon do? What were his successes? What effect had they on 
the governor? 

55. What modifications were made in the government? What 
furtlier resulted? Describe the conflict. What happened to James- 
town ? 

56. What was the effect of Bacon's death ? What resulted from the 
suppression of the rebellion ? How did Lord Culpepper administer 
the government? What was the condition of the colonists? 

57. By whom was Culpepper succeeded? How did he conduct 
afi'airs ? What effect had his rule on the colonists ? Who succeeded 
liim? What was his character ? 

58. What was the effect of the English Revolution? What was the 
population in 1688 ? What was the prevailing religion ? What effect 
liad slavery? How was literature cultivated? What the social and 
private life of the planter ? 

CHAPTER II. 

61. W' hat was the character of the Puritan settlers of New England? 
What the influence of their example and principles ? 

62. In what consist their claims to greatness? What led them to 
separate from the Established Church ? 

63. In what year commenced the settlement in Leyden ? Who was 
the leader of the party? State the jurisdiction granted by King James 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 449 

to the Plymouth colony. Was it the intention of the Pilgrims to settle 
in Massachusetts ? 

G4. State particulars of the voyage to America in the Mayflower. 
When and where did the Puritans arrive in America? 

65. Who was chosen their first governor? State the disasters of the 
Pilgrims on their first arrival at Plymouth. 

66. What was the condition of the Indians when a treaty of peace 
M'as made with them? Wliat was the number of the colonists at the 
end of the first ten years ? 

67. What constituted the basis of their government and laws ? What 
was the nursery of American institutions? State the extent of the 
grant to Mason. When and by whom was it made ? State the terri- 
tory granted to Mason and Gorges. When and where did the first 
settlements under this grant commence? 

68. Describe the particulars of the formation of the Massachusetts 
Bay Company. To whom was the executive government of this com- 
pany entrusted ? Describe the number and character of the settlers 
under the charter granted by Charles I. 

69. State particulars of the settlement at Salem. What system of 
church government did they adopt? What resulted from the transfer 
of their charter ? 

70. Who was the leader of the colony which arrived in 1630? How 
many did the colonists number? What place became their capital? 
By whom was the elective franchise exercised ? What were the dis- 
couragements of the colony under Winthrop ? Name the principal 
emigrants who arrived in 1633, and their position. 

71. State the length and events of Winthrop's administration. Why 
was Winthrop unpopular? Name his successor. 

72. When did Hooker and his companions emigrate to Hartford? 
State the character of Roger Williams. What was the cause of his 
persecution ? 

73. Where did he and his companions go and settle ? What prin- 
ciple did he adopt in the early settlement of Rhode Island ? 

74. State the cause of increased emigration in 1635. Name the 
principal emigrants. By what was the administration of Sir Henry 
Vane distinguished? What were the opinions of Ann Hutchinson, 
which caused her persecution ? How were her doctrines esteemed by 
the clergy ? What became of her, after the return of Vane to England ? 

75. Who founded the town of Exeter, in New Hampshire? State 
the origin of the Pequod war. What ravages did the Indians commit 
on the Connecticut? 

76. How many Pequods fell in the attack of the colonists on their 
forts ? What became of the Pequod warriors ? What was the eilect 
of the war upon the Pequods? 



450 QUESTIONS TO 

77. State the doings of the colonists in Massachusetts after the Pe- 
quod war. What three events distinguished this period ? Who was 
governor of this settlement after the death of Winthrop and Dudley ? 
In what manner did Cromwell favour the colonists? 

78. What occasioned the decline of Puritanism on the restoration 
of Charles II. ? What were the habits of the colonists at this period? 
What was the influence of the commercial restrictions of the mother 
country? 

79. What demand did Charles II. make upon the colonists to propi- 
tiate the royal favour? Did they yield to the demand ? By whom 
was the Half-way Covenant adopted? What privileges were secured 
by a profession of this covenant? What rights were granted to the 
colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut in 1662? What privileges 
were granted to the freemen of Rhode Island? What qualifications 
were required by the charter of Connecticut? Did New Haven ac- 
cede to the charter ? 

80. Who was chosen governor of the consolidated colony in Con- 
necticut ? In what year? How long did he hold the office ? What 
counties did this colony contain? When did the King send commis- 
sioners to Massachusetts, to examine into its affairs ? How were they 
received? What was the procedure of the General Court? Was the 
disobedience of the colony published? 

81. In what year did King Philip's War break out? What misfor- 
tunes did it occasion the colony ? For what sum was the province of 
Maine purchased by Massachusetts ? At what period was the pur- 
chase made? Why did the English merchants complain of the colony 
of Massachusetts ? Who was sent from England to be Collector of 
Boston? What difficulties arose between the King and the colonists 
in 1681 ? 

82. By whom was Charles II. succeeded ? How was his accession 
received by the colonists? Who did he appoint governor of New 
England ? What were the acts of Andros after his arrival in Boston! 

83. State particulars of the insurrection, after James II. was de- 
posed. What resulted from the confirmation of liberty in New Eng- 
land by the Parliament? What was the state of the colonies after the 
accession of William and Mary? 

CHAPTER III. 

85. In what year was the Dutch East India Company formed ? Who 
discovered Hudson river ? Who first controlled the Dutch West India 
Company? What was the name of the island on which the city of 
New York stands ? 

86. State particulars of the first settlement of New York. What 
Avas the colonization scheme first projected in Holland? How did the 
title of Patroon originate ? 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 451 

87. For what purpose was the island of Manhattan reserved ? To 
whom did the most flourishing colony belong? Where was it situated? 
Where did the Swedish colony settle 1 

88. What resulted from the accession of Kieft as governor ? In what 
year terminated the Swedish colony? What were the claims of the 
English to New Amsterdam? 

89. When and to whom did Charles II, cede New Amsterdam ? In 
what year was the name New York substituted for that of New Ne- 
therlands ? What were the terms granted by the conquerors ? What 
succeeded the conquest of New Amsterdam by the English ? 

90. In what year was New Amsterdam reconquered by the Dutch? 
What gave name to New Jersey? How much land was oifered to the 
first settlers of New York ? Who was the first governor appointed by 
the proprietors? 

91. In what year did New Jersey and New York come into posses- 
sion of the English ? Who governed these colonies under the new 
patent? To whom was New Jersey sold in that year? Who were 
the purchasers of West Jersey ? Who assumed the government in East 
Jersey ? 

92. In what year was East Jersey purchased by members of the 
Society of Friends ? Name the governors of New York under James II. 

93. When did the people of New York obtain a free constitution ? 
When was Andros appointed governor ? State the population of New 
York in 1680. Where were the principal settlements? State the cha- 
racter of their population at that time. 

CHAPTER IV. 

95. Why were the Catholics persecuted during the reigns of James 

I. and Charles I. 

96. What was the character of Lord Baltimore ? What territory was 
ceded to him, and when ? What name did he give to this territory 1 
What power was ceded to him by the charter ? 

97. In what year did Lord Baltimore die? By whom was Mary- 
land colonized after the death of Lord Baltimore ? What led to the 
prosperity of the colony? Was religious liberty enjoyed by the colo- 
nists? How did Virginia view the prosperity of the colony? 

98. What was the conduct of the Protestants to the Catholic settlers 
of Maryland ? What benefited the colony on the restoration of Charles 

II. ? State the character of the governor, Charles Calvert. How many 
inhabitants did the province contain in 1676? 

CHAPTER V. 

99. Who projected the settlement of Carolina? In wliat yeax was 
it commenced? What caused a hostile expedition against the Hugue- 



452 QUESTIONS TO 

nots? How many of them perished? In what year was a patent 
granted by Charles I.? 

100. State the extent of this patent. To whom was the territory 
conveyed ? Where did the New England emigrants settle ? By whom 
was the Albemarle settlement made ? Who settled a tract on Cape 
Fear river, and when? 

101. State the country included in the extended grant. State some 
of the privileges of the proprietaries of this territory. Who drafted 
their constitution ? 

102. What was it called? What future States did it include? What 
were the peculiarities of this constitution ? Where did they place the 
executive power .' 

103. What was their form of religion? Was this system of jurispru- 
dence popular? Where and when was Charleston settled? What 
was the foundation of South Carolina? Who succeeded Drummond as 
governor of North Carolina? 

104. In what year did Stephens die? Who succeeded him? Who 
headed the popular insurrection ? What occasioned it? 

105. What characterized the administration of Sothel ? State the 
neck of land selected as the site of Charleston. When was Yeamans 
appointed governor ? 

106. Who superseded Yeamans? By whom was West succeeded? 
How many governors were appointed in six successive years ? When 
did the Huguenots arrive in South Carolina? What caused them to 
seek refuge in America ? Whence did they emigrate ? 

107. How were feudal institutions regarded in 1688? State the 
temper and death of Seth Sothel. What led to the introduction of rice 
in Carolina? What is the second chief staple of that State ? 

CHAPTER VI. 

109. What led to the settlement of Virginia ? Who settled New 
York, and for what? Who settled Massachusetts? Maryland? By 
whom was Pennsylvania colonized ? Who was the founder of the 
Society of Friends ? What are those fundamental principles, called 
the "Inner Light?" 

110. State the principles of George Fox. What were his views 
upon war, penal laws, and religious toleration? What fate attended 
his disciples in the seventeenth century ? Who was an early and dis- 
tinguished convert to Fox ? 

111. In what year was the grant of Pennsylvania made to Penn? 
State the extent of the grant, and the powers it conferred. In what 
year did Penn publish his frame of government ? State the particulars 
of his famous treaty with the Indians. 

1 1 2. Where and when did he first promulgate his principles of love 1 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 453 

How long was this treaty kept inviolate 1 What were the fundamental 
principles established by Penn ? 

113. State the negotiations between Lord Baltimore and Penn. 
Where did the latter lay out an extensive city, as a city of refuge? 
State the number of houses erected in Philadelphia in 1683. Wliat 
privileges did Penn grant the colonists under him ? 

114. From what countries did emigrants settle Philadelphia? What 
was the growth of the city in three years'? What was the object of 
Penn in returning to England ? In what year was the present bound- 
ary of Pennsylvania settled ? What forms the division between free 
and slave labour ? 

115. What discontent prevailed among the colonists in 1690? When 
did Penn return to his colony? What subject of disquiet arose after 
his return ? What were the most striking features of the new charter 
for Pennsylvania? Who were the original settlers of Delaware, and 
where did ihey land ? 

116. What constituted the three lower counties as part of Pennsyl- 
vania? State the character of Penn as a reformer. State the popula- 
tion of the respective colonies in 1701. 

117. State the imports and exports of the colonies at the same pe- 
riod. Their occupations and buildings. Their customs in respect to 
travelling, schools, manners, laws, and superstitions. What constituted 
the prominent traits of the colonists? 

CHAPTER VII. 

119. What motives led the French to settle Canada? When was 
Lake Champlain explored ? In what year did the Franciscan priests 
discover Niagara ? 

120. What was Montreal in 1626 ? State the character of the Jesuit 
missionaries. What was the character of the Mohawks ? State par- 
ticulars of the discovery of the Mississippi. 

121. Who discovered Lake Ontario? Who penetrated to the Falls 
of St. Anthony ? Who took possession of Louisiana, and when) How 
did the name of Louisiana originate? State particulars of the fate of 
La Salle and his coadjutors. 

122. What was the population of Canada in 1689? With whom 
was the province involved in war? What is said of the early enter- 
prise of the French Canadians ? What caused the decline of French 
dominion in America? 

BOOK III. — CHAPTER I. 

123. Advert to the leading causes which led to the settlement of the 
coast of North America. 



454 QUESTIONS TO 

24. What had effect upon the early prosperity of the colonies'? 
State whether the Indian tribes were first united to expel the European 
from this continent. What restrained the Indians from repeated in- 
surrections ? How many people were massacred by the Indians in 
16441 

125. State the Indian hostilities in New York. In what year were 
Mrs. Hutchinson and her family slain? 

126. In what year did the Narragansett war break out? What was 
the character of King Philip? 

127. What were his ravages on Connecticut river? 

128. Describe the battle of Bloody Brook, and its result. What gave 
alarm to the frontier towns? Which was the most powerful tribe of 
Indians in New England ? 

129. Who attacked the Indians near Kingston, and in what year? 
What resulted from that engagement? What injuries were done to 
the frontier towns ? Describe the league to destroy the Indians. What 
befel King Philip ? 

130. What caused the war against the Susquehannas ? Who was 
the leader of it? Who were the principal sufferers by it? What was 
the character of the Indian warfare ? 

131. What occasioned the French and Indians to unite ? In what 
year was Schenectady destroyed ? What took place at Salmon Falls? 
What at York? Was the white man safe from the tomahawk of the 
Indians? When did the Indians attack Haverhill and Boston? 

132. What legends are handed down of the sufferings of New Eng- 
land ? Describe the intrepidity of Hannah Dustin. What was the 
effect of the hostilities of the Indians ? What is related of these 
hostilities ? 

CHAPTER II. 

133. What is the character of religious intolerance? Were the 
colonists affected by it? 

134. Is intolerance universal? What strong minds have been af- 
fected with it? What feelings did the Puritans manifest on religious 
questions ? 

135. How did the Puritans conduct toward the Baptists and 
Quakers? W^hat were the great mistakes of the Puritans? Did the 
Puritans reason when they were opposed ? 

136. Was the intolerance of the Puritans to the Quakers confined to 
one place? When did it commence ? In what light did the Puritans 
regard the authority of the Bible ? 

137. What characterized the Quakers of New England? What 
edict was proclaimed against them? Did Rhode Island regard it? 
By whom were the Rhode Island Quakers joined ? 



HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 455 

138. What penal law was enacted against the Quakers? Who were 
sentenced under this law? Was it subsequently relaxed? What 
religions views prevailed under William and Mary? How were the 
Catholics of Maryland treated? 

139. Relate what is said of Salem witchcraft. By whom was witch- 
craft made a capital offence? How did the Puritans regard withcraft? 
What is said of Increase Mather and his son ? 

140. Who was governor of the colony in 1688? What part did he 
take in respect to this popular delusion? What cruelties were inflicted 
on supposed witches? How many innocent persons had suffered? 

141. Where did this delusion mostly prevail? Were the religious 
views of the Puritans more liberal? Who adopted the Half-way 
Covenant? What name was given to the latitudinarian party ? What 
place was under its special influence ? 

CHAPTER III. 

What influence did English laws exercise over the colonies? What 
legislation of the English was detrimental to Virginia? 

144. What was the influence of the Navigation Act of Cromwell 
upon the colonies ? When was it passed? What were the restric- 
tions of the Navigation Act of Charles II. ? What was the date of its 
passage? To what extent did Parliament control the trade of the 
colonies ? 

145. How was this act considered by the colonies ? Did it produce 
resentment in Virginia, and why? What effect had it upon the value 
of tobacco? What was the staple of Virginia? 

146. What was the policy of England relating to articles grown or 
manufactured in the colonies? What act of Parliament had special 
relation to wool ? What led to the poverty of the colonists at this 
period? 

147. What other prohibitions of England depressed the colonists? 
Did the colonists dispute the right of England to impose restrictions? 
In what way did they manifest displeasure at the legislation of Eng- 
land touching these matters ? 

CHAPTER IV. 

148. What were the subjects of complaint by the colonists? What 
did the people of these colonies want of the mother country? 

149. What were the causes of discontent among the colonists? 
What has been the tendency of the colonists to increase democratic- 
power ? What has formed the basis of political institutions in the 
colonies ? 



456 QUESTIONS TO 

150. Which of the colonies was most aristocratic? State the com- 
plaints and resistance of Virginians to royal governors? What were 
tlie struggles in Massachusetts against arbitrary power? What acts 
indicated the opposition of Massachusetts to royal governors ? 

151. What acts did the legislature of Massachusetts pass to resist 
encroachment? How did the colonists regard quit-rents to proprietors ? 
Did they resist the enforcement of acts of trade? Was Pennsylvania 
satisfied with the state of afiairs ? 

152. After the death of Penn, were the colonists free from colli- 
sions ? What resistance was manifested in New York to royal edicts ? 
What acts of the administration tended to fan the spirit of resistance? 
What sentiments were gaining ground ? What made the colonists so 
conscious of their future prospects ? 

153. What was necessary before the visions of the colonists could 
be realized? How were the Indians incited to combine against the 
colonists ? 



CHAPTER V. 

155. What acts of the French were obnoxious to the English? 
During whose reigns was England engaged in war with France ? Why 
were the Dutch jealous of the French king? 

15G. Of what territories belonging to the French did the English 
endeavour to take possession ? Who made destructive inroads into 
New England and New York ? 

157. What were the intercolonial wars, at the close of the reign of 
Queen Anne ? Who incited the Penobscot Indians to hostilities, near 
Portland and Piscataqua ? Who desolated the villages on the Mohawk 
and Hudson? Who was leader of the expedition against Canada in 
1690? How large was the expedition under Phipps ? Was it suc- 
cessful ? 

158. What was the consequence of the peace of Ryswick, 1699? 
What led to the re-commencement of the war? What caused the 
Spaniards and French to attack the English settlements? What colony 
was particularly exposed to hostilities? 

159. Who headed an expedition against St. Augustine in 1702? Did 
it succeed ? What resulted from the war in Florida ? In what part 
of Massachusetts did the Indians carry desolation in 1702? What 
efiect had the Indian tomahawk upon the people ? 

160. State the kind of retaliation adopted by the colonists. To what 
power did the garrison of Port Royal surrender? To whom was en- 
trusted the expedition against Quebec? When did it arrive in the St. 
Lawrence? What disaster caused the failure of the expedition? 

161. What important treaty terminated hostilities in 1713? What 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 457 

■was accomplished by the treaty of Utrecht? What did Spain lose? 
What did England gain? What nation was the greatest sufferer? 
What was the condition of the colonies at the close of the reigns of 
William III. and Anne ? 

CHAPTER VI. 

162. State the reasons which accelerated and elevated the condition 
Df the colonies at the commencement of the eighteenth century? What 
was the probable population of the different colonies respectively ? 

163. Which two colonies were most flourishing? Did the English 
claim the abstract right of taxation? Was it tacit submission to Eng- 
lish legislation in the colonies, or the admission of the colonies of the 
right of England to tax them ? 

164. What opened the eyes of England to the strength of the colo- 
nies? How were the governors appointed in the respective colonies? 
Did Britain favour the cause of education in the colonies ? 

165. What college was founded by the bounty of England? Who 
established the colleges of Harvard and Yale ? When was the first 
printing-press set up in Boston ? What was the state of agriculture at 
this time ? 

16C. What occasioned the disappearance of the Indians? Where 
were slaves imported from? Was the traffic in slaves tolerated ? How 
did it happen that slavery was perpetuated in the South, and not in 
the North ? 

167. How many slaves had been imported into the colonies at the 
beginning of the eighteenth century ? How many slaves did England 
take from Africa between 1666 and 1688 ? What was the action of 
the North American Congress, in 1776, in relation to slaves? What 
caused the British traffic in slaves before the declaration of American 
independence ? 

BOOK IV. — CHAPTER I. 

169. State the conspiracy of 1715 against South Carolina by the 
Indians ? Who was governor at the time ? 

170. What was the result of the contest? In what year did Caro- 
lina become a royal province? What acts did the Assembly decree? 
By whom was New Orleans founded ? Describe the scheme called 
(he Mississippi Company, 

171. Who was John Law? What became of his bubble? What 
caused the depreciation of paper money ? What was New England 
worth in 1738 ? 

172. What did the English exact of Maine? Of Massachusetts? 
Of Pennsylvania ? Of Maryland ? Wh-at duties did Parliament assess 
on colonial produce, 17^33? 

39 



458 QUESTIONS TO 

173. What English philosopher visited the colonies ? What was hi* 
object? What his benefaction to Yale College? Who was Jonathan 
Edwards? Wlio was his coadjutor in religious revivals? 

174. Who was David Brainerd ? Who founded Dartmouth College, 
and when? When were Columbia College and Nassau Hall founded? 
Who was editor of the first periodical magazine ? Who, next to Wash- 
ington, laid the basis of colonial independence? When was Brattle- 
boro, Vt., settled I 

CHAPTER II. ' 

175. What causes led to the settlement of Georgia? Upon what 
principles was tl*e colony founded? Who was its founder, and what 
his character and acts ? 

176. Was imprisonment for debt common in the eighteenth century? 
What caused reverses of fortune at this period ? What was thought 
of misfortune in trade ? 

177. When was a royal charter granted to Georgia? What sum did 
Parliament grant in aid of benevolence ? Who was governor, and 
who were coadjutors under this royal charter? What was the seal 
prepared for this colony? What production was intended in Georgia? 

178. Where did the first company of colonists land in 1732? Of 
how many persons did this colony consist ? What place did they select 
for a settlement ? What was the substance of a code of laws adopted 
by them? Who emigrated to the new colony ? 

179. Who were John and Charles Wesley? Why did John Wesley 
return to England? Who afterwards emigrated to this colony? Was 
there any rupture between Georgia and Carolina, and for what? 

180. What did the Moravians and Scotch Highlanders think of 
slavery? What involved England in war, 1739? How many negro 
slaves inhabited South Carolina at this time? In what place was a 
large army invested? 

181. What armament was embarked to invade Georgia? What was 
the state of the colony in 1743? When did Georgia revert to the 
crown ? Who was appointed governor ? Was negro slavery intro- 
duced at this time? 

CHAPTER III. 

183. Describe the war of the Austrian succession. What aid did 
England render, and at what expense ? Was this war confined to 
Europe ? 

184. To what countries did it extend? What was its effect ? Was the 
claim of Maria Theresa to Germany the real cause of the war ? By 
whom were colonies ravaged at this period ? What was the proposed 



HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 459 

attack upon Louisburg? What colonies rendered most assistance 1 
To whom was the command assigned? 

185. Of whom was this expedition composed? When did it em- 
bark at Boston ? State particulars of the siege and capture of Louis- 
burg. What honour was conferred upon Pepperel for this service 1 
What was the moral eflect of the victory ? 

186. What force was raised in the respective colonies to invade 
Canada? What caused the abandonment of the enterprise? Who 
paid the expenses ? Was Louisburg restored ? What indemnification 
did Massachusetts receive ? What were the stipulations of the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle ? 

187. What were the real objects in dispute? What territories did 
the French claim ? 

CHAPTER IV. 

189. What caused the final struggle between the French and Eng- 
lish ? What did Edward IIL claim ? 

190. What force had the English in the colonies? What force had 
the French ? 

191. What act of the English encroached upon the rights of Franc©? 
What act of the French was obnoxious to the English? In what year 
did France meditate a restriction of the growth of the British settle- 
ments ? 

192. What events increased the irritation of England ? On what 
occasion did Washington make his first public appearance? What was 
iiis age ? Who despatched him to the French commander on the Ohio ? 
How did he discharge his mission? 

193. Who commanded the forces against Fort Duquesne? How did 
the expedition of Washington terminate? What among the colonies 
iiimiliarized the idea of federation? 

194. When was Braddock sent to America? What three military 
expeditions were projected at Annapolis ? What preparations did the 
French make on this occasion ? By whom was the invasion of Nova 
Scotia meditated? Who commanded this expedition? 

195. What difliculties attended Braddock's march to Duquesne? By 
what force was his van assailed near the fort ? What happened to 
Braddock and his army ? 

196. What befel the expedition against Niagara? What the expe- 
dition against Crown Point? Who were among the slain? Who 
endowed a free school in Western Massachusetts? 

197. When was Ticonderoga fortified ? By whom were the colonies 
remunerated for their losses? What were the successes of the French 
in 1756? 

08. How large a force retreated from Louisburg? How large a 



460 QUESTIONS TO 

fleet did the French anchor near that fortress? What other disasters 
befel the English? What celebrated man came into power in England 
at this time ? 

199. What measures were prosecuted under Pitt's ministry? How 
large an army composed the English and American forces? Who was 
commander? What expeditions were planned? When did Louis- 
burg capitvilate ? 

200. What resulted from the battle of Ticonderoga? What English 
General lost his life ? What success attended the expedition of Gen. 
Forbes against Fort Duquesne ? Who projected the invasion of Ca- 
nada ? What incipient measures were meditated ? 

201. What was the result to England of the campaign against 
Canada, 1759? What was the fate of Crown Point? Ticonderoga? 
Niagara? Who deserve the glory of conquering Quebec? 

202. Describe the ascent of Wolfe to the Heights of Abraham. The 
battle of Quebec. 

203. What were the effects of the conquest of Quebec ? Who lost 
their lives ? What reverses befel the French ? 

204. When was Montreal surrendered to the English ? Why did 
the colonies exult in the defeats of the French ? Describe the war 
with the Cherokees. 

205. What became of the Cherokees after their defeat? What 
islands in the West Indies fell into possession of the English? What 
became of the French fleet? When did the death of George H. occur? 

206. What were the stipulations of the treaty of Paris ? How was 
peace regarded by the colonies? Did they continue prosperous? 

207. What impulse was imparted by the conquest of Canada to the 
settlements of Maine? What benefits did peace impart to New Hamp- 
shire? To Massachusetts ? What was the condition of New York in 
1763? 

208. What were the population and exports of Virginia ? What was 
the state of literature and the arts in 1763 ? 



BOOK V. — CHAPTER I. 

209. What was the grand event of the eighteenth century? State 
for what the Revolution is memorable. What does unbounded na- 
tional prosperity sometimes produce ? 

210. What was the condition of England at the peace of Paris ? 
What did the arrogance of Britain lead to in respect to her colonies? 
What were the feelings of the colonists toward the mother country? 

211. Why were the colonists dissatisfied with British rule? What 
led to the American Revolution ? 

212. What was the effect of commercial restrictions upon the colo- 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 461 

tiists? What was the feeling of the colonists in view of a British 
army stationed in America ■? In what did the British interfere with 
the colonial trade ? 

213. In what liglit did British naval officers view a contraband trade 
carried on? Did the colonists refuse to purchase British goods ? 

214. What were the colonial views of English taxation? With whom 
did the scheme originate? 

415. How did the English aristocracy favour the scheme of taxa- 
tion? In what light did the colonists regard it? In what year was 
the Stamp-Act proposed to Parliament? Who took part in Parliament 
in opposition to the ministry? 

216. State the reply of Barr^ to Charles Townshend. What was 
the vote in the House of Commons for and against the Stamp-Act? 
Was the Stamp-Act seriously opposed in the House of Lords? When 
did it finally pass ? What was its effect in the colonies? 

217. What Americans were most eloquent in opposition to it? In 
what places did it occasion popular riots ? What did the colonists do 
to manifest their indignation? What was its effect on the British 
ministry ? Who succeeded Lord Granville ? When and by what vote 
did the Commons repeal the act? What American had influence in 
effecting this result? How was it received in America? 

218. What English statesmen were conspicuous for their advocacy 
of the repeal? What odious act remained unrepealed? Who origi- 
nated the scheme of colonial taxation? 

219. In what did the "Great Commoner" of England mistake? 
What articles were first taxed in the colonies ? Who introduced the 
bill to tax the colonies? What reception did the tax meet with in 
America? j 

220. Who in Massachusetts first pleaded the cause of freedom ? Who 
were popular leaders in other States? Who was the author of the 
Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer? What changes now took place in 
the British ministry ? 

221. What produced new causes of offence in America? State the 
troubles in Massachusetts. Did the people of Boston furnish quarters 
for the British troops ? 

222. What did the House of Representatives do in the midst of an 
armed force? State the acts of the General Assembly of Virginia at 
this crisis. What course was adopted by the Legislature of Soutli 
Carolina and other States? Was the right of American Legislatures 
to oppose the authority of Parliament advocated ? 

223. When did Lord North repeal the obnoxious duties, except on 
tea ? What new disputes hastened the Revolution ? 

224. What acts of opposition did the colonists commit respecting the 
duty on tea? What wa« the nature of the Boston Port Bill? 

29* 



462 QUESTIONS TO 

225. When were English troops sent to Boston ? Who expostulated 
against this measure ? Did the colonists contemplate resistance ? Who 
wrote a letter in favour of independence ? 

226. How did the disaffection of the colonists manifest itself? When 
did Congress assemble? Who was President of Congress? How 
many delegates composed that body ? Who were its most distinguished 
members ? 

227. What was included in their declaration of rights ? By whom 
was Boston Neck fortified ? Who was at the head of the Committee 
of Safety ? 

228. What effort did Chatham make in the House of Lords? Who 
opposed him? Who were the leaders in the House of Commons in 
favour of conciliatory measures ? 

229. Who foresaw the blunders of Parliament? Were the expostu- 
lations of these men regarded ? 

230. What sentiment did Patrick Henry invoke at this crisis? What 
was the feeling in regard to independence 1 

231. Where was the first battle fought? Describe it. When did 
this battle occur ? 

CHAPTER II. 

233. What was the effect of the battle of Lexington ? Who raiser? 
a force to seize Ticonderoga ? 

234. Give the particulars of the fall of that fortress. What were 
the proceedings of Congress at this crisis ? State the general officers 
appointed to the army. Who was Adjutant-General? Who were 
Brigadier-Generals ? 

235. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. What were the respective 
forces engaged ? 

236. How many were killed and wounded in the attack? What 
distinguished American fell ? 

237. What measures were adopted by Congress for a vigorous pro- 
secution of hostilities ? What course was pursued by the English Par^ 
liament ? 

238. To whom was entrusted the invasion of Canada? Who com- 
manded the army after the illness of Schuyler ? What force had 
Arnold on his arrival at the St. Lawrence? What prevented his cap- 
ture of Quebec? 

239. What were the united forces of Arnold and Montgomery? 
When did they commence an attack? What distinguished officer was 
killed.? Who wounded? What was the total loss ? 

240. What embarrassed Washington in the camp before Boston ? 
What ditl Congress at this time ? What additional troops did Parlia- 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 46B 

ment order to America? Who commenced the debate in Congress 
respecting independence? 

241. Who opposed if? Who was its most conspicuous advocate? 
When and where was the Declaration of Independence proclaimed ? 
By whom was it drawn? How was it received in America? How 
by the British ? How many troops did General Howe land on Staten 
Island? What was the strength of the American army at this time? 

242. When was the battle of Brooklyn Heights fought? What was 
the loss of the combatants respectively? To what place did Washing- 
ton retreat from Long Island ? Who did Congress appoint to negotiate 
with Howe? Where did the negotiation take place? 

243. What was its result? What military preparations ensued? 
Where did the British army take position ? How far from New York ? 
Where did the American army retreat to ? 

244. State the circumstances of the fall of Forts Washington and 
Lee. To what place did Washington continue his retreat ? State the 
successes of the English after the retreat of Washington. What was 
the condition of the American troops at this time ? 

245. What new powers were conferred upon Washington by Con- 
gress? When did he cross the Hudson? With what force ? How 
many Hessians were taken by surprise ? 

246. At what time did the battles of Trenton and Princeton occur ? 
Where did the American army retire for winter quarters? Where did 
Cornwallis retire? What were the results of this campaign? Who 
were Major-Generals of the new army ? Who were the Brigadier- 
Generals ? 

247. What three commissioners were sent to France? What were 
the financial embarrassments of the country ? 

CHAPTER III. 

249. Did Parliament vote supplies to continue the war ? In what 
month did the campaign of 1777 open? At what point did the British 
commence operations ? How large a force under General Tyson 
attacked Danbury ? 

250. What distinguished American officer was killed in this cam- 
paign? What was the fate of the expedition against Sag Harbor? 
What force under Howe marched into New Jersey? Where did Wash- 
ington and Lafayette have an interview ? 

251. What other distinguished foreigner accompanied Lafayette? 
What occasioned the defeat of the Americans at Brandywine ? Was 
a battle risked on Howe's occupation of Philadelphia? State the 
result of the battle of Germantown. 

252. What is said of Forts Mifflin and Mercer ? What was the Bri- 



464 QUESTIONS TO 

tisli plan of invading the country? How large was Burgoyne's army 
at Ticonderoga? What disaster attended the retreat of St. Clair? 

253. When did Burgoyne arrive on the Hudson ? Who commanded 
the New Hampshire militia at Bennington? What course did Stark 
pursue upon the approach of the invaders? 

254. What was the memorable saying of Stark when he attacked 
the British force? State the result of the victory. The loss of the 
Americans. The loss of the British? What was the effect of this 
victory upon the contending parties? Who superseded Schuyler? 
What was the force of Gates ? 

255. What were the circumstances resulting from the surrender of 
Burgoyne? What prospects encouraged the Americans at this crisis? 
What American officers were confident of success ? What conciliatory 
measures did Lord North propose ? 

25G. What effect was produced in France by the surrender of Bur- 
goyne? What was the condition of the American army? Who were 
disposed to doubt the fitness of Washington for command? By whoni 
was the commander-in-chief sustained ? 

257, What qualities of Washington secured the confidence of his 
country ? 

CHAPTER IV. 

259. By whom was Washington assisted at Valley Forge ? What 
were the pecuniary embarrassments of Congress ? When was the 
treaty of alliance signed with France? What occasioned the retreat 
of Lafayette from Barren Hill? 

260. At what time was Philadelphia evacuated ? By whom ? Who 
took the lead in attacking the British at Monmouth? What followed 
the retreat of Lee? What ended the military career of Lee ? When 
did he die? 

261. Who commanded the French fleet? How many troops were 
furnished to take possession of Newport? What happened to the 
French and English fleets? What was the situation of Sullivan at this 
time ? 

262. What frontier settlement was attacked by the Indians? What 
protected western Virginia from their incursions? State the incidents 
of the campaign. 

263. What measures did Congress adopt to obtain money ? What 
were the American forces in 1779, and where stationed? Did the 
British obtain possession of Georgia? Where were military operations 
chiefly confined? Who took command of the southern army? 

264. State the loss of Virginia by the plunder of the British in 1779. 
Describe the expedition of Tyson into Connecticut, In what place was 
Washington employed in raising defences ? What was Wayne's ex- 
ploit at Stony Point ? 



HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES. 465 

265. Relate the disaster at Penobscot under Sewell. What was the 
force commanded by Sullivan and Clinton against the Indians? Were 
the Indians routed and compelled to emigrate? "What prevented Sul- 
livan from attacking Niagara? What did he do on resigning his com- 
mission? 

266. Were the French and Americans successful in their plan for 
recovering Savannah? With what force did Clinton embark for that 
port? Describe the naval action of Jones on the coast of Scotland. 

267. What were the difficulties and distresses of the Americans in 
1780? What additional troops and money did Parliament grant the 
ministry? What was the first enterprise of the British at the South in 
1780? What befel Charleston? 

268. State the disaster of the investment of Charleston to the Ame- 
ricans. Did blame attach to General Lincoln? By whom was the 
royal authority re-established in South Carolina ? With what force was 
Gates despatched to the South ? State the defeat of Gates at Camden, 
and his losses. 

269. By whom was Gates superseded ? Relate particulars of the 
defeat of Ferguson in North Carolina ? Relate the results of the cam- 
paign in 1780? 

270. Relate the correspondence and treason of Arnold ? Who com- 
municated with Arnold ? When and how did Arnold escape ? For 
what was Andre executed? 

271. What reward did Arnold receive for his treachery? Where 
was he employed by the British ? 

CHAPTER V. 

273. What was the condition of affairs in 1781? By whom was 
financial aid obtained in this crisis ? Describe the ravages of Arnold 
in Virginia. 

274. Who formed the design to capture Arnold ? How did it suc- 
ceed? On what places were contributions levied by the English? 
Where was Morgan sent to harass the enemy ? 

275. How many men did Morgan lose by his defeat? Whither did 
Green retreat, on the 14th of February ? What position did Greene 
take after recrossing into North Carolina? What was the character of 
tlie southern warfare? 

276. Describe the battle of Guilford. What was the result of the 
attack on Rawdon ? What were the results of the campaign? What 
sort of war was carried on by both parties ? 

277. How was Cornwallis employed in "Virginia? Wlien and where 
was he attacked by Lafayette? What places did the British General 
occupy in Virginia ? What amount of property was destroyed by him ? 



46G QUESTIONS TO 

278. Why was an attack upon Cornwallis contemplated ? How did 
Washington pacify the American troops? Where did he obtain pecu- 
niary aid ? 

279. Describe the battle of Eutaw Springs. What naval force made 
its appearance on the coast ? Where did the French and American 
armies effect a junction? How large was the investing army at York- 
town ? What was the British force ? 

280. When did Cornwallis surrender? What number of British 
troops were made prisoners ? What was the effect of the surrender 
of Cornwallis ? What was done with the American forces after the 
fall of Cornwallis? What distinguished the year 1782, during the 
campaign ? 

281. Describe the state of public feeling in England in 1782. Who 
succeeded to the ministry on the resignation of Lord North? What 
terms of peace were proposed ? Who were the commissioners ap- 
pointed by the respective parties ? 

282. When and where was the cessation of hostilities proclaimed? 
When did the British depart from New York ? When did Washing- 
ton resign his commission ? What were his concluding remarks to 
Congress ? Give a summary of the character of Washington. 

283. What created dissatisfaction in the army? Describe the cha- 
racter of the American army? What was the character of the Ame- 
rican Revolution ? 

284. What special agency should be acknowledged in this contest? 
How many soldiers were furnished for the war? How many were 
supplied by Massachusetts? What calamities resulted from the war? 

289, What amount of debt was caused by the war ? Which nation 
was the greatest sufferer ? What were the moral results of the contest? 

BOOK VI. — CHAPTER I. 

86. Describe the condition of the country at the close of the war. 

287, When and where did the delegates assemble to reorganize the 
government ? Who were the most distinguished members of the con- 
vention ? Who was its president? Who opened the business of the 
convention ? 

288, What chief difficulty arose in the debates? In what were the 
free States opposed to those which held slaves? What different opi- 
nions were held relating to the choice of the executive? What, in 
respect to his powers? What, in respect to the judiciary? What 
were the great questions of debate ? 

289, What great principles of compromise were adopted ? What 
Mas deemed a concession to the commercial States? What to the 
small States? What to the Southern States? How long was the 
convention in session ? 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 467 

290. What was the great merit of this convention? What provision 
was made for amendments of the constitution? How many States 
represented in the convention agreed to the constitution? When was 
this instrument fully ratified ? 

Recite the objects of the constitution? Where is the legislative 
power vested ? How often are members of the House of Representa- 
tives chosen ? 

291. What are the qualifications of a Representative? How are 
representatives and direct taxes apportioned ? How often shall an 
enumeration be made after the first three years? How are vacancies 
filled? How is the Speaker appointed? What is the number of 
Senators from each State, and how are they chosen? 

292. What are the qualifications of Senators? Who shall be Presi- 
dent of the Senate? What branch of Congress tries impeachments? 
By whom is the mode of electing Senators and Representatives pre- 
scribed ? How often shall Congress assemble ? What constitutes a 
quorum to do business ? At whose desire shall the yeas and nays be 
called ? 

293. How is the compensation fixed for Senators and Representa- 
tives? What are their special privileges? In what branch do bills 
for raising the revenue originate ? After a bill has passed both 
Houses, and before it can become a law, what is required ? 

294. Give a summary of the powers of Congress. 

295. What are the provisions relating to emigration ? What in re- 
spect to the habeas corpus ? To ex post facto laws ? Taxes or duties ? 
How shall moneys be drawn from the treasury? What provision in 
respect to titles of nobility? What are the restrictions upon the 
States ? 

296. In whom is the executive power vested ? How long shall the 
President hold office? How is he elected? State the proceedings of 
the Electors. Of the House of Representatives. 

297. When are the Electors chosen ? State the qualifications of the 
President. State proceedings in case of his removal. What is his 
salary? His oath ? What are his powers? 

298. Who has power to convene Congress? When? How r«ay 
the President be removed? How is the judicial power vested? To 
what cases does it extend ? 

299. In what cases has the Supreme Court jurisdiction? What 
original ? What appellate? What rules regulate jury trials? What 
constitutes treason? How is it punished ? What credit is given to 
the public acts of States ? What arrangement is made for the delivery 
of fugitives from justice ? What in case of persons escaping from 
service ? 

300. What are the provisions respecting new States ? The public 
domain? What protection is guaranteed to each State? What are the 



468 QUESTIONS TO 

provisions in respect to amendments of the constitution ? What is the 
supreme law of the land ? 

301. What are civil officers sworn to support? What is provided 
in respect to religious tests ? How many States were required to ratify 
the constitution 1 When was the constitution ratified ? Name the 
delegates from? each State who signed the constitution. 

302. What is stipulated in respect to civil and religious liberty? 
The right of assembling and of petition ? Of bearing arms ? Of quar- 
tering soldiers? What is provided in respect to search-warrants? 
What for the protection of person and property ? 

302. When and where, in criminal suits, is a trial by jury secured ? 
VV'hat rights are secured to the accused party? What in suits at com- 
mon law ? What is provided in cases of bail, fines, and punishment? 
What are the powers reserved ? 

303. What is the provision respecting the election of President and 
Vice-President? Who is ineligible to the ofiice of Vice-President? 

304. What articles in the constitution were specially objected to? 
Who were the authors of the papers called "The Federalist?" State 
the origin of what was known as the Federal party. Who were called 
Democrats or Republicans ? 

305. What States adopted the constitution, and which did not? 
When did the Continental Congress cease to exist ? When was the 
first election for President and Vice-President? Who was elected 
President ? By what vote ? Who Vice-President ? 

306. When and where did the first Congress assemble? Who was 
Speaker of the House ? Who President pro tem. of the Senate ? Who 
was chosen to inform Washington of his election? When was Wash- 
ington inaugurated ? Who administered the oath of oflice ? 



CHAPTER II. 

309. What was the first subject which attracted the attention of Con- 
gress? What subjects were debated respecting the revenue? What 
policy did Congress adopt? 

310. How was the collection of duties provided for ? What is called 
the Department of Foreign Affairs? Name the principal and subordi- 
nate offices of the Treasury Department. By whom was the army and 
navy managed ? 

311. Describe the organization of the Supreme Court. The Circuit 
Court. The District Court. What salary did Congress allow to the 
President ? 

312. Who was Chief- Justice ? Secretary of the Treasury?^ Secre- 
tary of State? Of War? Attorney-General? Postmaster-General? 
Name the first collectors of the principal ports. When did Congress 



HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 469 

adjourn? Where did the President make his first tour? When did 
North Carolina adopt the constitution ? When did Congress reassem- 
ble ? How large was the foreign debt? 

313. How large was the domestic debt? What became of the State 
debts ? State the report on the anti-slavery petitions. 

314. What was the disposition of this report? When was Rhode 
Island admitted into the Union? What was done with the national 
debt and tariff? State the act of naturalization. What was the patent 
act? What that on copyright of books? What was enacted respect- 
ing seamen ? What relating to trade with Indians ? 

315. What was the criminal code of laws? What was fixed for 
the salary of foreign ministers? Who proposed a national bank, and 
when ? By whom was the bank opposed, and why ? What was the 
duration of its charter? 

316. When was Vermont admitted into the Union? When did 
Washington select a site for the seat of government, and where ? Who 
was the first minister to England ? Who succeeded him ? Who was 
minister to France ? 

317. Describe the defeat of St. Clair in 1791. Where did the 
second Congress assemble ? Who were among its distinguished new 
members? What two great parties were organized? Who were the 
leaders of these parties ? What were the opposing principles of each 
party ? 

318. Which party sympathised with the French? What financial 
measures were opposed by the Republicans? What was fixed as the 
ratio of representation? What was enacted to increase the revenue? 
What act was passed in reference to the currency? What was the 
impress upon our gold coinage ? 

319. What was the relative state of the parties at this time ? What 
benefits resulted from Washington's first administration? Mention his 
principal measures. 

320. Who was the second President? When was he inagurated? 
Who was opposed to Adams as Vice-President? Which political party 
gained the victory ? Who was then minister to this government from 
France ? 

321. What was our national policy toward foreign governments? 
Describe the character of Genet. What acts of his were offensive? 
Was his recall popular? 

322. What acts of Great Britain were deemed arrogant? When did 
the third Congress assemble? By whom was Jefferson succeeded, on 
the expiration of his second term? 

323. State the origin of the navy. What harbors were ordered to 
be fortified? What arsenals were erected? What were the British 
Orders in Council? Who was deputed special minister to England? 

324. Give an account of the Whiskey Insurrection. In what State 

40 



470 QUESTIONS TO 

did it originate? What action of the government caused its suppres- 
sion ? What good resulted from the prompt measures of the President? 

325. What were the topics of the President's message on the re- 
assembling of Congress ? When was Jay's treaty signed 1 What were 
its stipulations? 

326. Why was the treaty obnoxious to the South? Who distin- 
guished himself in Congress by a memorable speech ? State the effects 
of this speech. When was the treaty ratified ? 

327. How did Jefferson regard this ratification ? What feeling gene- 
rally prevailed among the Republican leaders? 

328. Describe the policy of Washington in 1798. In what respects 
was he misrepresented ? 

329. What were the stipulations of the Indian treaty ? Of the treaty 
with Algiers? Of the treaty with Spain? When was Tennessee 
added to the United States ? After the recall of Morris, who was de- 
puted minister to France ? 

330. By whom was Monroe succeeded ? When did Washington 
issue his farewell address? When was John Adams inaugurated Pre- 
sident ? Who was his opponent for the office? What was Adams's 
majority ? 

331. What incidents attended the retirement of Washington ? What 
are his claims to the respect and veneration of his country? 



CHAPTER III. 

332. What were our relations with France upon the accession of 
Adams? Who was Vice-President ? 

333. What obnoxious decree was passed by France? What seemed 
to be the coercive policy of that nation ? How did she look upon this 
country ? 

334. Who were appointed envoys to France in 1798? Who was 
then Minister of Foreign Affairs in France? State the demands of the 
French Directory. Who was sent to negotiate ? Was the ofler accepted 
by our envoys ? 

334. How much American property was seized by France ? What 
measures did Congress adopt at this crisis ? Who was appointed com- 
mander-in-chief at this crisis? Did he accept? 

335. Of whom was Adams jealous? What was the great defect of 
Adams ? What course did the French government adopt to effect a 
reconciliation? Who was nominated by the President as minister to 
France? Was he rejected? Who were finally appointed ? 

337. W^hat instructions were given to our envoys? What caused a 
rupture in the cabinet? What was the policy of the President in 
respect to France? What members of the cabinet differed from him? 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 471 

33S. What did Congress do upon the restoration of peace ? What 
were the great events of Adams's administration ■? For what was the 
year 1799 memorable ? When did Washington die 1 Who pronounced 
his eulogy 1 

339. What peculiarity marked the administration of Adams ? What 
caused the hostility of the Federalists to him? Which party prevailed 
in the election of ISOll Who was elected President? Vice-Presi- 
dent? Who were the unsucessful candidates? Why was the election 
of President carried to the House of Representatives? 

I 

CHAPTER IV. 

341. State the condition of the country on the accession of Jefferson. 
Who did he appoint to the chief executive offices ? What acts did 
Congress repeal ? 

342. What important measure did Congress adopt in the session of 
1801 ? Who commanded the squadron against Tripoli? What did it 
accomplish? Who commanded the next expedition against Tripoli? 
What caused the loss of the Philadelphia ? 

343. What bold exploit was performed by Decatur? What was 
done by General Eaton ? Who secured peace with Tripoli ? Give the 
particulars of the purchase of Louisiana. 

344. What caused the duel of Burr and Hamilton? When and 
where was it fought ? Who fell ? 

345. How old was Hamilton at his death ? Describe his character. 
Who pronounced his eulogy ? What happened to Burr ? What secured 
the re-election of Jefferson ? 

346. When did Burr depart for the West ? Whom did he entrap ? 
Who was Blennerhasset ? Who detected the schemes of Burr ? Where 
was Burr arrested, and when? 

347. Where was he tried ? Where did he go after his trial? When 
did he return to America? How old was he when he died ? 

348. What were the British decrees against neutrals? Who claimed 
the right of search for British seamen ? What measures did Congress 
adopt ? When were the Orders in Council passed ? What was their 
effect? What was the object of the Berlin decrees? 

349. When were they issued? What were the Milan decrees? 
What led to the embargo? When was the embargo law passed? 

350. Relate the circumstances attending the capture of the Chesa- 
peake. When did Congress interdict trade with France and England? 
What was the policy of Jefferson ? 

351. Which of the two great political parties of the United States 
has generally been in the ascendency ? 



472 QUESTIONS TO 



CHAPTER V. 

353. Give a summary of the English aggressions? What course did 
Jefferson pursue ? By whom was he ably supported ? Who was 
inaugurated President in 1809? Vice-President 1 

354. What persons composed the cabinet of Madison? What act 
did Congress pass against the two belligerents? When was war de- 
clared against Great Britain ? State the cause of the war. Who 
opposed the war, and for what? 

355. What classes of citizens were hostile to the war? In what 
light was the war regarded by the people ? Was the nation prepared 
for war? State the condition of the army, the navy, and the treasury. 
Describe our geographical position. 

356. Who were appointed Major-Generals ? Where was General 
Hull placed ? What important post was first taken, and when ? What 
disasters attended the invasion of Canada? When did Hull surrender 
with his army? 

357. State the trial and sentence of Hull? What forces were col- 
lected to invade Canada? Who commanded the three divisions re- 
spectively ? Describe the attack on Queenston Heights. What British 
General was killed? 

358. Describe the campaign of General Dearborn in 1812. How 
large was his force ? Give the particulars of the capture of the Guer- 
rierre. When and by whom was the Frolic captured? The Macedo* 
nian ? State the loss of the latter vessel. 

359. Describe the capture of the Java. What was the moral efiect 
of the American naval victories ? 

360. What measures were adopted by Congress about this time ? 
Who was elected President? Vice-President? Who were appointed 
commissioners to negotiate a peace ? 



CHAPTER VI. 

363. How did the campaign of 1813 open ? Who was appointed to 
the command of the north-western army? 

364. Give the particulars of the defeat of General Winchester. By 
whom were the Kentucky soldiers massacred? Who permitted the 
slaughter ? What general officer commanded Fort Meigs ? Who com- 
manded the Kentucky volunteers ? Was General Clay successful in 
pursuing the Indians? 

365. What event opened the way to the capture of Proctor? When 
and where was Perry's victory gained ? State the loss of the Ameri- 
can and British forces in this engagement. What opened a passage to 
the territory surrendered by Hull ? 



HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 473 

366. In what battle was Tecurnseh slain? What was the result of 
this battle? When and where did Harrison resign his commission? 
What was his military reputation? 

367. Where and when did the British fleets arrive ? State tlie con- 
dition of the American Navy at this time. Describe the depredations 
of the British on our coasts. What British Admiral encouraged these 
ravages? 

368. State the particulars of the attack on Craney Island. Where is 
it situated? What outrages were committed? What general officer 
was selected to attack Kingston ? Where is Kingston ? What forces 
did General Pike command? 

369. What occasioned his death ? What British force took Sackett's 
Harbor ? What was the character of Dearborn as a general ? Who 
succeeded him? In what battle were Generals Chandler and Winder 
captured ? 

370. What enterprise was entrusted to General Wilkinson ? How 
many men were under his command? What success attended the 
expedition ? 

371. Describe the massacre of Fort Mimms. What was its effect? 
Who received the command of the troops? 

372. Who was conspicuous in the war with the Creeks? When did 
General Jackson return ? By whom was he aided ? Relate the career 
of General Pinckney, of South Carolina. What terms did General 
Jackson impose in his treaty with the Indians ? Were the Indians 
capable of civilization ? 

373. When and where was the Chesapeake captured ? Who com- 
manded that vessel? Who commanded the Shannon? What were 
the memorable words of Lawrence? When and by whom was the 
Boxer captured ? 

374. Who was the leader in Congress in opposition to the war ? By 
whom was Webster opposed? What coercive measures did Madison 
recommend? When was the embargo repealed? What loan was 
authorized in 1814? 

375. How did the English contemplate the American navy? Was 
the navy popular in the United States ? 

CHAPTER VII. 

377. What American officers commanded on the Canada frontier? 
What was the plan of the campaign? When did General Brown 
attack Fort Erie? What was the result? 

378. What American officers were distinguished at Chippewa ? How 
old was Scott? State the loss of the British, and of the Americans. 
Describe the battle of Bridgewater. What American Generals were 
wounded? On whom did the command devolve? 

40* 



474 QUESTIONS TO 

379. What American officers were distinguished in this battle? 
When did Drummond besiege Fort Erie? What was his force? Who 
commanded the sortie on the 17th of September? What officers were 
distinguished? What General was brevetted for his gallantry? Who 
commanded at Plattsburg? What was his force? Did Izard arrive 
in season ? Why not? 

380. Why did the Americans abandon Fort Erie? Who commanded 
the British forces in their advance upon Plattsburg? How large was 
their army ? 

381. Give the particulars of the battle of Plattsburg. What Ame- 
rican naval officer distinguished himself? What American general 
officer was brevetted ? What resulted from the victory on Lake 
Champlain? 

382. When and by whom was the Essex captured? State the Ame- 
rican naval victories in 1814. What was the last important naval 
action of the war ? When did the British squadron enter the Chesa- 
peake ? Give the particulars of the battle of Bladensburg. Of the 
seizure of Washington. 

383. Who was Secretary of War at this period ? Why did he 
resign ? Who succeeded him ? What were the British designs on 
Baltimore ? 

384. When and with what force did Jackson storm Pensacola? How 
did Jackson fortify New Orleans, and when ? What British general 
attacked New Orleans? What was Jackson's efficient force? 

385. What was the loss of the respective armies ? What was the 
consequence of the victory of New Orleans ? When was the treaty 
of Ghent concluded? Who signed the treaty on behalf of the United 
States? State the stipulations of the treaty. 

386. What were the effects of the war upon the United States? 
What moral lesson did it teach the nation? What were the financial 
effects of the war ? 

387. What was its effect upon manufactures? Who commanded the 
squadron against Algiers ? What resulted from it? When was the 
national bank incorporated ? What was its capital ? Where was it 
located? What important act was passed in 1815? What by the 
fourteenth Congress ? 

388. What distinguished the close of Madison's administration? 



BOOK VII. — CHAPTER I. 

389. When did the election of Monroe take place ? Name his cabi- 
net officers. Who was chosen Speaker of the fifteenth Congress? 

390. When was Mississippi admitted into the confederacy? What 
led to the invasion of Florida by Jackson? 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 475 

391. When was Florida ceded to the United States, and for what 
consideration ? When was Alabama admitted into the Union? What 
was the most importai)t question during Monroe's administration? 

392. When was Missouri admitted 1 Maine ? When did the seven- 
teenth Congress assemble ? 

393. Who succeeded Monroe in the Presidency? Who was Vice- 
President? How was Lafayette received ? 

394. Give a summary of the progress of the country about this 
period. What is said of steam navigation ? 

395. What religious question was agitated in New England ? 

CHAPTER II. 

39fi. When was John Quincy Adams inaugurated as President? 
Whom did he select as Secretary of State ? What event signalized the 
year 1826? 

397. What is said of Adams's administration ? Who succeeded him ? 
What system commenced with Jackson ? 

398. What subjects did the President recommend to the twenty-first 
Coniiress ? Who composed his cabinet? When was a bill passed to 
rechaiter the United States' Bank? By what majority ? Did the Pre- 
sident approve the recharter ? How many bills were vetoed by 
Jackson ? 

399. State the circumstances attending the threatened secession of 
South Carolina. What distinguished citizen advocated the measure ? 
What course did the President adopt? What was the object of the 
tariff of 18331 Who were inaugurated President and Vice-President 
in March, 1833? 

400. Who directed the removal of the deposits from the United 
States' Bank? Did the House sustain the President? What was the 
action of the Senate upon this measure ? In what year did Texas 
rebel against Mexico? What was the object of the rebellion? Who 
commanded the Texan troops? What distinguished member of the 
House denounced the insurrection ? 

401. To what place were the Seminole Indians removed ? Who 
was their leading spirit? State the character of Jackson's administra- 
tion. When were Arkansas and Michigan admitted into the Union? 

402. In what year did commercial speculations prevail? State the 
effects of the land speculations ? What was the loss by the great fire 
in New York in 1835 ? 

CHAPTER III. 

403. When was Van Buren inaugurated President ? What caused 
the suspension of the banks? What was the effect of the bank sus- 
pension ? 



476 QUESTIONS TO 

404. Did the calamity effect a change in the habits of the people? 
What is the true source of national wealth 1 

405. What important treasury scheme was recommended by the 
President? What success did it meet in the Senate? Did it pass the 
House 1 Upon what subjects were the political parties divided at this 
period ? 

406. What were the prominent measures recommended on the re- 
assembling of Congress? What troubles arose in Canada in 1838? 
What befel the schooner Caroline? When did the banks resume 
specie payments? 

407. What divisions took place in the Presbyterian Church ? What 
doctrines prevailed at New Haven? What caused the establishment 
of a theological school at East Windsor? How did the courts decide 
in respect to property owned by the Presbyterian Church ? What were 
the movements of Dr. Pusey in the Episcopal Church? 

408. \Vhat popular reforms were contemplated at this period? What 
were the doings of the convention at Harrisburg in 1839? 

409. What two important acts did Congress pass in 1840? When 
did President Van Buren retire to private life ? Where has he resided 
since ? 

CHAPTER IV. 

410. Who were members of President Harrison's cabinet? When 
did he die ? 

411. Who succeeded President Tyler in the White House? Name 
the two first important acts of this Congress? Was a national bank 
established by Congress? Why did it not become a law? 

412. What gave the name of repudiation to several States? Which 
member of Harrison's cabinet did not resign? Who constituted the 
new cabinet of President Tyler? What was the population of the 
United States by the census of 1841 ? What was the gain as com- 
pared with the census of 1830? 

413. What was the great event of 1842? By whom was Mr. Web- 
ster aided in effecting the treaty with Great Britain ? Who negotiated 
the treaty on the part of Great Britain? Who succeeded iVIr. Webster? 
Who succeeded Mr. Upshur ? 

414. Did the Senate confirm a treaty for the annexation of Texas? 
Was the treaty with China confirmed ? When was the bankrupt law 
repealed? Describe the troubles in Rhode Island. Why was the 
constitution of Rhode Island deemed treasonable ? Who was then 
governor ? What fate awaited Dorr ? 

415. What disturbances arose in New York ? Who were the Anti- 
Renters? When was Texas admitted into the Union? Why did 
Jackson, Van Buren, and others, object to its admission? What war 
resulted from it? 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 477 

416. Who was the Whig candidate for President in 1844? Who 

was the Democratic candidate? Which was elected? What is said 
of the popularity of Clay ? 



CHAPTER V. 

417. Who composed the cabinet of President Polk ? By what battle 
did Texas gain her independence ? Was her nationality acknowledged ? 
By what power? 

' 418. Why did Mexico recall her minister from the United States? 
What was deemed the proper boundary between the United States 
and Texas ? What did Mexico consider the proper boundary ? When 
was the tariff law of 1842 repealed ? What was the scale of duties 
of the new tariff? When were troops ordered to the Rio Grande ? 
Who commanded the American forces ? 

419. Where was the main dep6t of General Taylor? How large a 
requisition for troops did he make? Why did the Mexicans cross the 
Rio Grande ? 

420. When did the first important battle with Mexico occur? State 
its result. What was the result of the battle of Resaca ? How much 
money did Congress vote to carry on the war with Mexico? How 
many men were to be raised ? 

421. When did Taylor arrive near Monterey ? What was the result 
of the battle of Monterey ? 

423. What Mexican General submitted a proposition to capitulate ? 
What munitions of war fell into the hands of the Americans? How 
long an armistice was agreed upon? Where were the head-quarters 
of General Taylor? Who of the Mexican Generals was recalled and 
placed at the head of affairs? How large an army did Santa Anna 
raise ? What was the position of General Taylor at this time ? 

424. Describe the plan for the attack on Vera Cruz. What Ameri- 
can General was to command the troops ? Did General Taylor retire 
to Monterey ? 

425. What was his position? What were the movements of Gene- 
ral Scott? Describe the advance of Santa Anna upon Taylor. 

426. When was the battle of Buena Vista fought? Give an account 
of it. What force had Santa Anna in his retreat toward San Luis 
Potosi ? 

627. How large was the force of Scott when he advanced to Vera 
Cruz ? What was the course of General Scott in his attack ? 

429. Describe the siege of Vera Cruz. When did the city surrender? 
What was the American loss ? What American General was sent oa 
in advance of General Scott to Mexico? 



478 QUESTIONS TO 

431. What force had the enemy at Cerro Gordo? On what day was 
that position attacked? What was the American loss? What was 
the loss of the enemy 1 What measures did Santa Anna adopt? 

432. What preparations were made to defend the city of Mexico? 
Describe the advance of General Scott upon that city. Was any oppo- 
sition made by the Mexicans? 

433. What posts did Santa Anna fortify ? Describe the battle of 
Contreras. Of Churubusco. 

435. What was the effect of the victory of Churubusco? Why! 
was the armistice granted by General Scott honourable to him ? To 
whom was committed the assault upon Molino del Rey ? Did any 
decisive result follow this battle? In what manner did Scott prepare 
to assault Mexico ? 

436. To whom was the assault upon Chapultepec entrusted? State 
the result of this contest. "When did Santa Anna withdraw his troops 
from the city of Mexico? State the strength of the American forces 
at the termination of hostilities. 

437. What reflections are suggested by the conquest of Mexico ? To 
whom is to be ascribed the honour of the conquest ? Describe the 
further movements of Santa Anna. What took place after his arrival 
at Puebla? 

438. When did General Lane enter Puebla? Did the Americans 
continue in the occupation of Mexico? What awaited Mr. Trist, the 
American commissioner? Why were Generals Pillow and Worth 
arrested? When was the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo made? What 
were its stipulations ? 

439. By whom was General Scott succeeded in command ? When 
did the American troops evacuate Mexico ? What was the chief event 
of Mr. Polk's administration ? What was the state of the country at 
this time ? 

440. When were the States of Iowa, Florida, and Wisconsin, admit- 
ted into the Union ? Who were nominated at the Whig convention 
for President and Vice-President? Who was chosen? When did the 
death of President Polk occur ? 



CHAPTER VI. 

441. Who constituted the cabinet of President Taylor? What two 
important acts were passed in 1850? When was California admitted 
into the Union ? When was a territorial government established in 
Utah ? 

442. What act was passed to terminate the slave agitation ? How 
were fugitive slaves to be reclaimed ? When did John C. Calhoun 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 479 

iZ '"t: -"t^-T"'"^- «''^ '^--'ror' 3 or ,r ;?„• 

1851. The number of seamen employed. t-iearea m 

444 What was the amount of exports and imports in 18 'SO -J ^v^ . 
was the population of the Union, according to the as" census, d' 
scr.be the internal improvements of the Uni ed States Stl ^h« 
number of colleges. The number of students. Wha remains for h! 
Amencan nation to realize the fruits of the Revoluln ' 



THE END. 



^^ 101 83 4 


















Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proc 
Neutralizing Agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: 

JAN 1398 
BBRKEEPE 

PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGIES. 
1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Twp.. PA 16 
(412)779-2111 







< V *1» 






.^'C, 





i^-nc. 










%^^ 







LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




011 527 036 9 



